Contribution of Indian School of Philosophy - UGC NET PDF Download

Contribution of Indian school of philosophy

Education

Education plays a vital role in the overall development of a person. Education and philosophy are two disciplines, which are very closely related and in some way both overlap each other.

Education is a process of initiating the child into the way of life. An educator not only holds certain beliefs and ideals of life, but also rises to convert his pupil to his own views and his own way of life. The influence of a person, holding a vital belief, brought to bear upon another person with the object of making him also hold that belief is education.

The term "education' is derived from the following three latin words:

Educare : This means to bring up, to nourish, to rear and to train.

Educere: This implies to draw out and to lead out.

Educo : The letter 'E' means 'out of and 'duco' means 'to lead'. This denotes to extract out and to lead forth.

Definitions of Education

Several great educators and thinkers have explained the meaning of education are as follows

According to Plato, "Education develops in the body and soul of the pupil, all the beauty and all the perfection he is capable of'.

According to Pestalozzi, "Education is the natural, harmonious and progressive development of man's innate powers".

According to Froebel, "Education is the unfolding of what is already enfolded in the germ"

According to Aristotle "Education is the creation of a sound mind in a sound body". According to Aurobindo, "Education means helping the growing soul to draw out that in itself'.

According to Swami Vivekananda, "Education is the manifestation of divine perfection already existing in man".

According to Gandhiji, "By education I mean all round drawing out the best in child and man body and mind and spirit".

According to John Dewey, "Education is the process of continuous reconstruction of experience".

Thus, we can say that education is the process of facilitating learning, or the acquisition of knowledge, skills, values, beliefs and habits which teaches us to be a true human being.

Nature of Education

Following are the important characteristics of the nature of education

Education is Purposive : There is a definite purpose for all the educational activities.

Education is Planned : Education is systematic and needs planning.

Education is Life Long: Education starts from the time of conception and goes on till death. It is the process of development from infancy to maturity. It includes the effect of everything which influences human personality.

Education is Overall Development: Education is concerned with the overall development of the personality.

Education is Bi-Polar : Both the teacher and the pupil influence each other.

Education is Tri-Polar: Education involves the teacher, the pupil and the environment. Education is Psychological as well as Social The capacities, needs, interests of the child, etc. must be interpreted in relation with his/her social environment.

Scope of Education

Education has a vast scope in the life of human beings. Some of them are as follows

•

All the aspects and dimensions of life are covered under education. It is a lifelong process.

•

It is concerned with the overall development of the individual, which includes physical, mental, aesthetic, cultural, ethical, intellectual, social, spiritual and vocational development.

•

It focuses on the maximum development of the innate abilities and powers of the individual..

•

It also helps in the development of character and personality of the individual.

Philosophy

Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems, such as those connected with reality, existence, knowledge, values, reasons, mind and language.

Philosophy is concerned with the understanding of life and the universe. It aims at comprehending the nature of existence. Philosophy is human endeavor that reads to the ultimate truth.

The English word 'Philosophy' has its root in the Greek term 'philo-sophia'. The term "philo' refers to love' and 'sophia' refers to 'human reason'. The Greek word can be literally translated in English as love of reason or love of human judgement and discrimination.

From the Indian view point, the word 'Philosophy' suggests observing and surveying the existence.

In Sanskrit, 'Philosophy' is referred to as 'Darshana'. The Sanskrit word 'Darshana' has its root in the word 'drs' that means to see, to look or to view. Seeing or viewing the reality and facts of experience forms the basis of philosophy. In other words, Darshana is a whole view related to the inner self, what we term as the soul or the spirit or the inner being. Philosophy or Darshana is concerned with the vision of six ways to the truth and reality.

In Sanskrit, the 'Philosophy' is also referred to as 'Tatva'. The word "Tatva' is concerned with the nature of reality.

The history of philosophy deals with the study of philosophical ideas and concepts through time. All cultures be they prehistoric, medieval or modern, eastern, western, religious or secular have their own unique schools of philosophy, arrived through both heritance and through independent discovery.

According to John Grier Hibben, "Philosophy is concerned with that, which is in contrast with that which seems to be. Its aim is to reveal the reality which underlines appearance". According to Plato, "Philosophy is acquisition of knowledge".

Branches of Philosophy

Philosophy is traditionally divided into several branches i.e.

•

Metaphysics: It inquires into the nature and ultimate significance of the universe. Logic: It is concerned with the laws of valid reasoning.

•

Epistemology: It investigates the nature of knowledge and the process of knowing.

•

Ethics: It deals with the problems of right conduct.

•

Aesthetics: It attempts to determine the nature of beauty and the criteria of artistic judgment.

•

In order to understand more about philosophy, it is necessary to divide it into two traditions i.e. 'Indian Philosophy' and 'Western Philosophy'

Philosophy of Education

Philosophy is a search for a general understanding of values and reality by chiefly speculative other than observational means. It signifies a natural and necessary urge in human beings to know themselves and the world in which they live and move and have their being. Education, like philosophy, is also closely related to human life. Therefore, being an important life activity, education is also greatly influenced by philosophy.

In the modern times, education has acquired two different shades of meaning, namely:

•

an institutional instruction given to students in schools and colleges, formally.

•

a pedagogical science studied by the student of education.

Scope of Philosophy of Education

Scope of philosophy of education includes following:-

Aims and Ideals of Philosophy of Education Education as a discipline critically evaluates the different aims and ideals of education. These aims and ideals have been propagated by various philosophers in different times. They are character building, man­making, harmonious human development, preparation for adult life, development of citizenship and achieving social and national integration.

Interpretation of Human Nature : A philosophical e picture of human nature is a result of the synthesis of the facts borrowed from all human science with the values discussed in different normative science. The philosophical picture, therefore, is more broad as compared to the picture of man drawn by Biology, Sociology, Psychology, Economics, Anthropology and other Human Science.

Educational Values : Value is typically a philosophical subject, since it is more abstract, integral and universal.

Theory of Knowledge : Education is related to knowledge. It is determined by the source, limits, criteria and means of knowledge.

Relationship Between Education and National Components of System of Education: The most important contribution of the philosophy of education to the cause of education is the provision of criteria for deciding the relationship of state and education, economic system and education, curriculum and school, organisation and management discipline.

Relationship Between Philosophy and Education

Education and philosophy are inseparable. It can be explained by the following points

•

The main aim of education is the all round development or promotion of life while philosophy also aims at the understanding of life and it's nature. Therefore, education and philosophy are related to the concept of life.

•

To lead a harmonious life, philosophy provides a direction and education takes help from it. There is a constant mutual agreement and interaction between the two. In short, philosophy deals with the end result and education with the means.

•

Education and philosophy are the two sides of the same coin. Education is nothing but the dynamic side of philosophy. It is the practical means of realising ideals of life.

The study of philosophy of education can be exciting and challenges that encounter great and enduring ideas of human thought. It enables in understanding the past of education and to develop the kinds of perspectives and intellectual tools that can help in dealing with the educational problems.

Indian Philosophy

Indian philosophy primarily begins with the later part of the Rig Veda, which was compiled before 1100 BC. Most of the philosophy of the Rig Veda is contained in the sections of the Purusha Sukta and Nasadiya Sukta. The Vedas are followed by the Upanishads; the

oldest, such as the Brihadaranyaka and Chandogya Upanishads, have been dated to around the 8th century BC.

The philosophical edifice of Indian religion viz. Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism are built on the foundation laid by the Upanishads. The Upanishads thoughts were followed by the Buddhist and the Jain philosophies. Webster's dictionary defines philosophy as "the rational investigation of questions about existence, knowledge and ethics".

The main schools of Indian philosophy were formalized chiefly between 1000 BC to the early centuries AD. Subsequent centuries produced commentaries and reformulations continuing up to as late as the 20th century by Sri Aurobindo Ghosh and Swami Prabhupada among others. Competition and integration among the various schools were intense during their formative years, especially between 800 BC to AD 200.

History of Indian Philosophy

The philosophies develop over long spells of time. It is difficult for historians to ascertain the period for the development of a particular philosophy. The historian goes on debating about the origin of the Aryans and the time period when the Vedic civilization developed in India.

It is believed by the Western scholars that the Aryans descended from the regions of North Central Asia sometime around 15000 BC. Though this has been challenged by some other learned scholars, some of the eminent Indian scholars also differ from their Western counterparts, saying that the Aryans were natives of India for long and that the Vedic civilization developed about 4000 to 8000 years ago.

The renowned Indian scholar Lokmanya Tilak contends that the first Vedic hymns could have been composed nearly 6000 years ago and the later works like the Upanishads themselves could be nearly 3000 years old.

According to Dr. Radhakrishanan, the outline of the history of Indian philosophies is as follows:

•

The Vedic period (1500 BC to 600 BC)

•

The Epic period (600 BC to AD 200 )

•

The Sutra period (AD 200 to AD 1700)

•

The Scholastic period (from Sutra period to 17th century)

Characteristics of Indian Philosophy

The system of Indian philosophies with a singular exception of Charvakism, have certain common characteristics. Charvakism remarkably differs from other system as it promotes materialism.

The following characteristics are common to all other systems

•

All schools emphasize the fact that philosophy must have a positive impact on the life of a man.

•

All the systems believe that philosophy leads man from darkness and ignorance to light and knowledge.

•

There must be a general agreement among the systems that the truth and reality should be verifiable. They should be substantiated by reasoning and experience.

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It is accepted by all the schools that man's suffering results from his ignorance. Man can conquer ignorance and other total freedom i.e. Moksha in their bodily existence.

•

There is a general agreement on man's essential spirituality or spiritual unity.

Classification of Indian Schools of Philosophy

The system of Indian philosophy is classified into two groups i.e.

(i)

Orthodox System upholds the supremacy of the Vedas as Vaisheshika, Nyaya, Sankhya, Yoga, Purva Mimamsa and Uttara Mimamsa.

(ii)

The Unorthodox System rejects the authority of the Vedas as Charvaka, Jainism and Buddhism. Very often, Purva Mimamsa is referred to as Mimamsa only and Uttar Mimamsa as Vedanta. The four systems like Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Sankhya and Yoga actually are in fact neither orthodox or unorthodox.

The following are widely acknowledged as proponents of the systems:

Proponents of the Indian Systems of Philosophy

1. Orthodox System

2. Unorthodox System

I

System

Proponent

System

I

Proponent

Nyay

Gautama

Charvakism

Charvaka

Vaisheshik

Kanada

Jainism

Vardhamana

Yoga

Patanjali

Buddhism

Mahavira

Sankhya

Kapila

Gautama

Purva Mimamsa

Jamini

Buddha

Uttar Mimamsa

Shankara

Indian Schools of Philosophy

We must look for better understanding of education in Indian schools. Here, we are especially dealing with Sankhya, Yoga, Vedanta, Buddhism, Jainism, Dayananda Darshan and Islamic Philosophy.

They can be explained as follows-

Sankhya

Sankhya is one of the most prominent and one of the oldest schools of Indian philosophy. The word 'Sankhya' is based upon the Sanskrit word 'Sankhya', which means 'number'. The school specifies the number and the nature of the ultimate constituents of the universe and thereby imparts knowledge of reality. lnfact, the term Sankhya also means perfect knowledge. Hence, it is a system of perfect knowledge.

Sankhya is one of the six Orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy and classical Indian philosophy. Sage Kapila is traditionally credited as the founder of the Sankhya school. It is regarded as one of the oldest philosophical systems in India. Based on the Upanishads, two schools of philosophies developed in India and they are-

(i)

The Realistic (e.g. Sankhya)

(ii)

The Idealistic (e.g. Vedanta)

The Sankhya philosophy combines the basic doctrines of Sankhya and Yoga. However, it should be remembered that the Sankhya represents the theory' and Yoga represents the application or the practical aspects' . Sankhya denies the existence of lshvara (God) or any other exterior influence. Sankhya philosophy regards the

universe as consisting of two realities i.e. Purusha (Consciousness) and Prakriti (Phenomenal realm of matter).

Metaphysics of Sankhya

Sankhya is a dualistic realism. It is dualistic because of its doctrine of two ultimate realities i.e. Prakriti (Matter) and Purusha (Self-spirit). Sankhya is realist as it holds that both matter and spirit are equally real. With regard to self, Sankhya is pluralistic because of its teaching that Purusha is not one but many.

Purusha

Purusha is transcendental self or pure consciousness. It is absolute, independent, free, imperceptible and unknowable, through other agencies, above any experience by mind or senses and beyond any words or explanations. Purusha is neither produced nor it produce anything

Prakritir

Prakriti is the first cause of the manifest material universe of everything except the Purusha. Prakriti accounts for whatever is physical, both mind and matter. It is composed of three essential characteristics. They are :

•

Sattva : pose, fineness, lightness, illumination and joy

•

Rajas . dynamism, activity, excitation and pain

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Tamas: heaviness, obstruction and inertia

Sankhya philosophy offers a framework for all the levels of manifestation, from the subtlest to the gross. Sankhya "comes from Samyag Alchyate, which literally means that which explains the whole.

The Sankhya system held that the creation cannot be made of one entity alone and that it is the union of two entities, viz. nature and God. One cannot clap with one hand, one needs two hands to clap.

There is an important role of causation in all branches of Indian philosophy, where we try to develop the concept on the basis of causal relations.

The two important views on the Theory of Causation in the Indian philosophy are:

(i)

Satkaryavada (Pre-existence of the effect in the cause) It maintains that Karya (effect is real). It is present in the Karana (cause) in a potential form, even before its manifestation

(ii)

Asatkaryavada It literally means the theory of non-existent effect. The Theory of Asatkaryavada is also known as Arambhavada. It means something has a new beginning. If the cause now transfers into a different phenomenon or effect, then the effect is a new creation. It is a new Arambha.

It is a beginning when there is milk, it is a material cause, when there is a curd is an effect right. If the effect is that, this is a new creation, it is a new beginning. The Sankhya as well as Vedanta uphold the Satkaryavada, but their interpretations are different. a

Idea of Evolution in Sankhya

The idea of evolution in Sankhya revolves around the interaction of Prakriti and Purusha. Prakriti remains unmanifested as long as the three Gunas are in equilibrium. This equilibrium of the Gunas is disturbed when Prakriti comes into proximity with consciousness or Purusha. The disequilibrium of the Gunas triggers an evolution that leads to the manifestation of the world from unmanifest Prakriti. The metaphor of movement of iron in the proximity of a magnet is used to describe this process. Some evolutions of Prakriti can cause further evolution and are labelled evoluents. e.g. intellect while itself created out of Prakriti causes the evolution of ego-sense or ahamkara and is therefore an evoluent.

While, other evolutes like the five elements do not cause further evolution. It is important to note that an evoluent is defined as a principle, which behaves as the material cause for the evolution of another principle.

The intellect is the first evolute of Prakriti and is called Mahat or the great one. It causes the evolution of ego-sense or self-consciousness. Evolution from self-consciousness is affected by the dominance of Gunas. So, dominance of sattva causes the evolution of the five organs of perception, five organs of action and the mind. Dominance of Tamas triggers the evolution of five subtle elements i.e. sound, touch, sight, taste, smell from self-consciousness. These five subtle elements are themselves evoluents and cause the creation of the five gross elements space, air, fire, water and Earth. Rajas are the cause of action in the evolutions. Purusha is pure consciousness, absolute, eternal and subject to no change. It is neither a product of evolution nor the cause of any evolute. Evolution in Sankhya is thought to be purposeful. The two primary purposes of evolution of Prakriti are the enjoyment and the liberation of Purusha.

Historical Development of Sankhya

Sankhya is thought to have evolved into a cohesive philosophical system in early centuries as such there is little evidence of existence of the Sankhya school before this time. However, the ideas that were developed and assimilated into the classical Samkhya text, Sankhya karika, are visible in earlier Hindu scriptures such as Vedas, Upanishads and Bhagavad Gita

The hymn of Purusha Sukta may also have influenced Sankhya. It contains the easiest conception of Purusha, a cosmic being from whom the manifestation arises. The sankhya notion of Buddhi or Mahat is similar to the notion HiranYagarbha, which appears in both the Rig Veda and the Shvetashvatara Upanishad,

Educational Implications

According to the principles of Sankhya philosophy, an action (karma) is already inherent in a cause, so it is true to remark that the development of man is already inherent in him (man). Hence, the work of education is to bring out the development of man to the fullest extent.

Sankhya accepts the Prakriti (Matter) and Purusha (Spirit) as the fundamental elements, but it has very clearly pointed out the basic difference between the two. According to Sankhya, true education is that which acquaints one with the difference between Prakriti and Purusha.

Sankhya has great relevance for contemporary education. lfwe consider the modern view of education as development, then Sankhya's postulate that development is only the unfolding of what already has potential existence needs no modification to suit today's world. Sankhya's psychological views also reflect modern learning theories,

If knowledge leads to the modification of Buddhi in the Sankhya system, then modern education aims at the modification of behavior. If cognition is a function of Buddhi or intellect in Sankhya, it is the formation of intellectual structure in modern education. Sankhya's theory states that generalization is the result not only of observation of elements, but also non-observation of non-elements reflect the modern view of concept formation.

Fundamentals of Education

According to Sankhya philosophy, man's body is made of senses (Gyanendriya) and organs of action (Karmendriya). The inner-self (Antahkaran) of man is a harmonious assemblage of Man (Mind), Ahankar (Ego or self-consciousness) and Buddhi (Intellect). The Purusha (Soul) is the enlightener of these three elements. Education should develop from the three basic elements. According to Sankhya, Mukti or deliverance or liberation of the soul is the ultimate purpose of one's life.

This Mukti may be obtained through releasing the difference between the Prakriti and Purusha (Matter and spirit). Therefore, the development of man should be so guided that he may distinguish between matter and spirit, and may obtain freedom from the miseries of life.

According to Sankhya philosophy, End (Saddhya) is the basic purpose of education. For realization of this end, the practice of Yoga is necessary. For the practice of Yoga (Yoga­Sadhana), moral conduct is the first requisite. In the modern language, the above purpose of education may be further analyzed in the following manner.

To get freedom from the three told miseries (Dukha Traya) i.e.

•

the miseries pertaining to soul, mind and body, in other words, the miseries pertaining to the spiritual realm i.e. Adhyatmik.

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the miseries relating to external world i.e. Adhibhautik.

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the miseries due to divine disorder i.e. Dam Peakop.

Aims of Education

Sankhaya states the ultimate aims as attaining the perfection of Purusha through discrimination, leading to its salvation. Thus, the objective of education should be to create discerning individuals capable of attaining the perfection that exists within them.

Methods of Teaching

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Through study of authorities but keeping an open mind and using reason to validate their theories.

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Experiential learning with maximum involvement of the senses.

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Activity based learning includes projects, practical work, etc. enabling the development of observation and logical reasoning.

Curriculum

The curriculum will involve the study of all disciplines, with stress on the natural sciences, since to understand Prakriti is to discriminate between Purusha and Prakriti and the art,

so as to develop an appreciation and understanding of the work of authorities. Physical Science and Yoga will also form part of the curriculum, since Sankhya believes that only a healthy and focused individual can attain salvation.

Discipline

Sankhya recommends a high degree of discipline. One can deduce that it should be self-imposed.

Role of a Teacher

The teacher is to be a facilitator of the development of the innate potentiality of the child.

Place of Student

Since, Sankhya believes in the multiplicity of Purusha, it follows that education must be individualized and child-centred.l

Religious and Moral Education

It can be deduced that religious education will not have much importance but moral education involving the teaching of ethical values will definitely hold a central place in any system of education based on Sankhya.

Yoga

"Patanjaliis regarded as the founder of Yoga System. The word "Yoga' literally means 'Union' i.e. spiritual union of the individual soul with the universal soul and is used in this sense in the Vedanta. According to Patanjali, Yoga does not mean union but spiritual effort to attain perfection through the control of the body, sense and mind and through right discrimination between Purusha and Prakriti.

Patanajali's Theory of Pramana

Sankhya and Yoga are said to be the aligned system of thoughts. The theory of knowledge according to Yoga school is similar to that of Sankhya theory. As according to Sankhya, it accepts only three independent source of valid knowledge (Pramanas ). These are perception, inference and verbal testimony (Sabda). The other source of knowledge like comparison, postulation (Arthapatti), and non-cognition (Anupalabdhi) are included under these three only, not recognise as a separate source of knowledge.

Perception

It is the direct cognition of an object through its contact with some sense. When an object like a table comes in contact with the range of eyes, it produces a certain impression of modification in the sense organs which are analyzed and synthesized by the mind. According to Sankhya, the knowledge of an object takes place when there is reflection of the self in the intellect which has been modified into the form of object.

According to him, there are two kinds of perception: Nirvikalpaka' or the indeterminate and 'Sanikalpaka' or the determinate. The Nirvikalpa pratyaksha arises at the first moment. It is the moment of contact between a sense and its object and is antecedent to all mental analysis and synthesis of sense data. Sanikalpaka's perception is the result of the analysis, synthesis and interpretation of sense data by the manas or the mind.

Inference

It is regarded as the knowledge of one term of relation, which is not perceived, through the other which is perceived and known to be invariably related to the first. In inference, what is perceived leads us to the knowledge of what is unperceived through the knowledge of the universal relation (invariable concomitance) between the two. We get the knowledge of Vyapti between the two things through the repeated observation of their concomitance.

According to Sankhya, Inference is further divided into two kinds 1.e. 'Vita' and 'Avita'.

'Vita' is based on universal affirmative propositions and 'Avita' is based on a universal negative proposition. Vita is further subdivided into Purvavat and Samanyatdrasta.

Purva Vats inference is that which is based on the observed uniformity of concomitance between two things. While Samanyatdrasta is not based on any observation of the concomitance between the middle and major term.

Verbal Testimony (Sabda)Verbal statement and verbal testimony of the knowledge of objects derived through words is known as Sabda. It is also defined as valid testimony i.e. the testimony of a trustworthy person (apta) who knows the truth and conveys it correctly. Sabda literally means sound (dhwani) but epistemologically it means meaningful sound or word. It is an important source of knowledge because a major portion of our knowledge of the objects of this world is derived from words.

Eight Fold Path of Yoga

Yoga's main function is to control the body, the senses and the mind. It recommends only perfection. Yoga also overcomes sensual attachment and passion. According to Yoga System, there are eight-fold path of discipline known as "Ashtanga Yoga', which are as follows-

(i)

Varna It is regarded as abstention. It includes the five of Jainism i.e. Ahimsa, Satya, Asteya, Brahmacharya and Aparigraha. VOWS

(ii)

Niyama It is regarded as self-culture. It includes external and internal purification.

(iii)

Asana It is regarded as steady and comfortable postures. Various kinds of postures provides physical help to meditation.

(iv)

Pranayama It is regarded as control of breath. It also deals with regulation of inhalation and exhalation of breath. It is very important for the concentration of the mind.

(v)

Pratyahara It is regarded as the control of the senses. It is referred as the process of introversion.

(vi)

Dharana It is regarded as the fixation of the mind on the object of meditation. Here, the mind is regarded as steadfast.

(vii)

Dhyana It is regarded as meditation. It is also referred as the steadfast contemplation without any break

(viii)

Samadhi It is regarded as concentration. The mind is completely absorbed in the object of meditation.

It is regarded as of two kinds which are as follows

I.

Conscious

II.

Supra-conscious

The former is regarded as Ekagra whereas the latter is regarded as Nirudha. The consciousness of the object of meditation persists in Ekagara, whereas the consciousness of the object of meditation is transcended in Nirudha.

Patanjali's Concept of Chitta and Chitta-Vrtti

The cessation of the modifications of Chitta is known as Yoga. This cessation occurs only through meditation. Chitta is defined as the three internal organs of Sankhya. The three internal organs include Buddhi, Ego and Manas.

Antahkarana and Chitta mean the same. Chitta is regarded as the first evolute of Prakriti. Chitta has the predominance of Sattva. It is regarded as unconscious. It is nearest to Purusha also. It also reflects Purusha. Vrtti is known as modification. When Chitta gets related to any object, then it assumes the form of the object. Chitta is referred to as the physical medium for the manifestation of the spirit.

There are five kinds of the modification of the Chitta, which are as follows:

1.

Right cognition 2. Wrong cognition 3. Verbal cognition 4. Absence of cognition 5. Memory

Right cognition includes perception, inference and verbal testimony. Wrong cognition means positively wrong knowledge. Verbal cognition means imagination. Nidra means absence of cognition. Smrti is regarded as the recollection of past experience. It requires the impressions, Ignorance, egoism, attachment, aversion, clinging to life and instinctive fear of death are the main sufferings of life.

Yoga in Education

Education in Yoga is also a spirituous-social necessity because the system aims at attaining the highest evolution of human-self. The aim of entire education, formal and informal, is to attain God head or bliss that comes after the empirical self is merged in the transcendental self or God. But the process of self-discipline implies that without the well­being of the human body and moral preparation on the part of man, Yoga is not possible. This aspect makes education a social necessity.

Aims of Education

The aim of education according to Yoga is the comprehensive development of human personality and also to make human child, free from bodily, mental and supernatural miseries. This implies that education must care for the physical, mental, intellectual and spiritual growth of the pupil. The aim of education according to Yoga is the moral preparation of the pupil, spiritual attainment, the development of scientific attitude and logical and intellectual faculties. It further means to evolve a society of people who are noblest in their thoughts and actions. The teacher is not only a theoretician but also a demonstrator in a scientific notion, power of knowledge, power of will and power of action. The method of education believes in a discriminative method in acquiring knowledge in terms of concentration. The disciplining of body and mind is the core of educational process and modern educators must know the inevitability of this factor any kind of Education

Methods of Education

•

Cittavarthiniyodha' (Concentration/meditation) involves right cognition, wrong cognition, imagination, memory.

•

Concentration as the most essential method.

•

Scientific attitude development method.

•

Yoga adopts not only the scientific attitude but also the programmatic one.

•

The system also believes in a discriminative method in acquiring knowledge.

•

The law of association in education constitutes great importance in Yoga.

Role of a Teacher

a.

Great importance to teachers.

b.

Not only a theoretician but also a demonstrator.

c.

Give practical demonstrations to the students (scientific notation).

d.

Teacher has power of knowledge, power of will and power of action,

Role of a Student

•

Surrender to his teacher for his total cure.

•

Without teacher nothing can be obtained by the student.

Curriculum

A.

System stands for psycho-physical training of human child,

B.

Provides literature which arouses interest amongst students in moral life.

C.

Embodies such specific sciences as medicine, clinical psychology, social sciences.

D.

Yoga approves all those subjects which deal with human physiology, true human nature and hidden laws of nature.

E.

Most appropriate to the evolution of individual and society

F.

If society are highly evolved divine culture can be happily fostered.

Discipline

•

Education and discipline are identical

•

Discipline is the means of which Yoga is the aim.

•

One has to discipline oneself physically and intellectually.

•

Disciplining the body and mind is the core of the educational process.

Education system not only in India, but the modern globalizing world also really is in great need of taking help from the Yoga System. Therefore, it is high time to think seriously on inclusion of Yoga and Yogic values in the education system.

Self-Education (Education of Self-Realization)

Yoga renders self-education. It is nothing but education of self-awareness. Yoga teaches us how to live with wisdom, not with the worldly orientations, present education system should inculcate this yogic value intensively. Yoga system can impart progressive training for the development of self-awareness and educate us about the realities of our being and becoming

Vedanta

The most pervasive philosophical tradition in India is the Vedanta in its different forms. The reason for this is that the schools of Vedanta trace their origin to the Upanishads, which have justly been called the Himalayas of the soul. The Upanishads themselves are called Vedanta, because they constitute the end of Veda, both in the sense of constituting, mostly the concluding portion of the Veda.

Vedanta was originally a word used in Hindu Philosophy as a synonym for that part of which we mark it's end and this end is said to be Upanishads.

In respect to Vedanta, it is also said to be the Uttar Mimamsa. The theory of Vedanta is often paired with Purva Mimamsa. It is believed that Vedanta school is more Orthodox because of their close adherence and philosophical sections of the Veda.

Classification of Vedanta School

Advaita Vedanta : It is the most influential school of all, and many philosophers, both Indian and Western have been influenced by it. It was propounded by Adisankara, a great Hindu reformer. According to this, Brahman is the only ultimate reality and the world is an illusion. Ignorance is the cause of all suffering in the world and only upon true knowledge of Brahman can liberation be attained. Upon liberation, there is no difference between the individual soul Jivatman and Brahman.

"The Guru is Brahma, the Guru is Vishnu, the Guru is Shiva, the God of Gods, the Guru is verify the supreme Brahman. Salutations to the adorable Guru".

Vishishtadvaita: It is propounded by Ramanuja and says that the Jivatman is a part of Brahman and hence is similar, but not identical. It also propounds Bhakti or devotional form of worship of God visualized as Vishnu. Maya is seen as the creative power of God.

Dvaita : It is propounded by Madhva. It identifies God with Brahman completely and in turn with Vishnu or his incarnation Krishna. It regards the individual soul as separate from Brahman and also advocates Bhakti. There is no concept of Maya.

Dvaitadvaita: It is propounded by Nimbarka. According to this, Brahman-Jiva relation may be regarded as Dvaita from one point of view and Advaita from another.

Shuddhadvaita: It is propounded by Vallabha. This system also encourages Bhakti as the only means of liberation to go to Goloka (The world of cows). The world is said to be the sport (Leela) of Krishna, who is Sat-Chit-Ananda.

Achintya Bhedabheda : It is propounded by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu. A Bhakti oriented devotee of Krishna, this doctrine is followed by the world famous ISKCON movement.

Vedanta Philosophy and practice provides contemplative methods of self-inquiry leading to the realization of one's true nature, that which is not subject to death, decay or decomposition. A major key of these practices is contemplation on the Mahavakyas.

The teachings of the Vedanta are best captured in the books of the Upanishads. The text Vivekachudamani (Crest jewel of discrimination) by Adi Shankaracharya is an excellent source.

Vedanta in Education

Education during Vedic period was the third eye, the third eye of insight and source of illumination. The system of education generally emanated from the Vedas and was called Vedic System of Education.

Vedanta is nothing but the teachings of the Upanishads, the Brahma Sutras and Bhagavad Gita. The essence of the teachings of Vedanta is that Brahman (God) which is existence, consciousness and bliss absolute is the only reality and that the universe is an illusionary appearance like a mirage seen in a desert or rope mistakenly seen as a snake and that the individual being (self) is essentially Brahman or God himself. This oneness of the self (Jiva) with absolute consciousness (Brahman or God) is the goal of Vedanta.

Aims of Education

Tamso-ma-Jyotirgamaya :One of the aims of education is this, in which knowledge should dispel doubts, dogmas and darkness.

Individual-Centered Education: Education should aim at the overall of an individual.

Nature-Oriented Education The centers of education were located from the populated and crowded areas, more in natural and serene surroundings. Education should make man one with nature.

Religion-Centered Education Religion dominated every aspects of life i.e. national, personal, social and educative procedures and practices, hence education should be wedded to religion.

Education of Mind Education should provide knowledge for creativity and pursuit of culture and civilisation.

Educational Implications

All Round Development of Child : All round development of a child's personality was the chief aim of education. The nature of education was much more individualistic rather than in groups.

Equality of Opportunity: There was no discrimination on the basis of caste, creed and colour and the students of a strata of society received education on an equal footing. In modern India too, the Constitution has adopted the principle of equality in the field of education.

Education for Self-Sufficiency : Apart from the intellectual aspects of education, its practical side was not lost sight of and along with art, literature and philosophy, students got a working knowledge of agriculture and other vocations of life.

Discipline and Pupil-Teacher Relationship: The sense of discipline and cordial relation between teacher and pupil of Vedic age is well known to the world.

Subject of Studies: Vedic literature is enriched by the sense of peace, humanity, universal brotherhood, which is also a vital part of our curriculum.

Commercial Education and Vedic Mathematics: This is one of chief feature of Vedic period. Vedic mathematics has become more popular now.

Methods of Teaching

During the Vedanta or Upanishadic period, the teacher impart education to his pupils. The pupils were to listen to their teacher's words attentively. But the teacher and pupil were very much involved in the teaching and learning process

The first step of studying was hearing, second step to practice or recitation of the taught text, the third step was to understand the meaning i.e. comprehension and fourth was inference i.e. understanding the result. After this, the fifth step comes in which the semantic was related to the explanatory subject matter and Brahmanic subjects of study. The sixth step was that of evidence or proofs which meant arriving at conclusions. Thus, the method of study had six points of development. The teacher explained the subject matter with the help of stories, proverbs and other illustrations.

Role of Teacher

The teacher is not merely a teacher but also a guide, mentor, a surrogate, parent, a role model and a friend.

Curriculum

In Vedanta, it has been mentioned that students should receive knowledge of various subjects. Thus, the major division of education is one where we are concerned with the supreme in which we deal with the knowledge about the soul, the universe and God. In other words, the efforts are made to know the universal truth.

On the other side, the focus is on the subjects like Vedas, Vedang, sound system, knowledge of religious rites, grammar, astronomy, commentary history, Purans, ethics and military science etc. were studied.

Discipline

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Rules of conduct should be listed down for both teacher and student.

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Rules also for respect due from pupils to teachers were framed.

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Rigid rules were laid for the conduct of pupils.

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Code of dress was observed.

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Observation of Brahmacharya or Celibacy was compulsory for all pupils.

Buddhism

The religious background, in which Buddhism grew up in India was that of Brahmanism. The supremacy of Brahmanical religion coupled with social inequalities and economic

disparities created a condition that helped the rise of the protestant movements in India during 6th century BC. Buddhism was the most remarkable among them

Buddhism is a religion indigenous to the Indian sub-continent that encompasses a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, who is commonly known as the Buddha, meaning the awakened one. Buddha was a Kshatriya prince from the small Shakya kingdom in the Himalayan foothills. Buddhism is unusual among the world religions in that it does not center upon a God. Its supreme purpose was to achieve liberation from suffering through the renunciation of desire, known as 'Nirvana'. Buddhism gives importance to the impermanence of existence and the sufferings associated with it. All existence, animate and inanimate, being in a state of flux, undergo changes incessantly. Nothing is permanent; existence is the source of all sufferings. Life is suffering the impermanence itself is the greatest Dukha. Ignorance leads to suffering and bondage. Karma is born out of ignorance. Karmic impressions are carried from this birth to the next birth. This means that the present conditions of life are the results of the past Karma. Every thought, word or action of the past existence has a bearing on the present existence.

Principles of Buddhism

The most striking feature of Buddhism is the Doctrine of Non-Self (Anatta). In a glaring and sharp contrast to the major philosophies, Buddhism does not accept the permanent entity such as Soul or the Atman. It maintains that there is no permanent and enduring entity in man. There is no distinct entity as the self or the soul. Buddhism advances the theory of Nirvana. Nirvana is a state of total freedom and no sufferings, with perfect knowledge, perfect peace and perfect wisdom, man is free from all bondage in the state of Nirvana. Lord Buddha taught his followers four 'Noble Truths' or 'Aryasatya', which he realized during his enlightenment.

The four noble truths presented by Buddha are

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The truth of suffering (Dukkha).

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The truth of the origin of suffering (Samudaya),

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The truth of the cessation of suffering (Nirodha).

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The truth of the path to the cessation of suffering (Marga).

The eight fold path to Nirvana suggested by the Buddha are Right to Belief Right to Meditate

1.

Right to belief 2. Right to meditate 3. Right to Memory

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Right to Effort 5. Right to Speech 6. Right to Conduct

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Right to Thought 8. Right to Action

Classification of Buddhism School

Hinayana School (i.e. the lesser vehicle)

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Its followers believed in the original teaching of Buddha.

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They sought individual salvation through self-discipline and meditation.

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They did not believe in idol worship.

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They favor Pali language.

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It is known as 'Southern Buddhist Religion' because it prevailed in South India. eg. Sri Lanka, Burma, etc.

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There were two sub-sects of Hinayana i.e. Vaibhasika and Sautrantika

Mahayana School (i.e. the greater vehicle)

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Its followers believed in the heavenliness of Buddha.

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They sought the salvation of all through the grace and help of Buddha and Bodhisattva.

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They believe in idol worship.

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They favored the Sanskrit language.

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It is known as 'Northern Buddhist Religion' because it prevailed in North India and religions like China, Korea, Japan, etc.

Educational Philosophy

Buddhist education offered to impart education for all. Many people shifted to the Buddhist educational system. It was for the first time in India that education was institutionalized on a large scale during the Buddhist movement.

It is also a historic fact that with the arrival of the Buddhist era, great international centers of education like Nalanda, Takshashila, Vikramshila, Ballabhi, Odantapuri, Nadia, Amravati, Nagahalla and Sarnath were in prominence. Educational centers in the Buddha period developed in Viharas and Sanghas.

Aims of Education

The Buddhist educational aims were comprehensive based on knowledge, social development, vocational development, religious development, character development, which are as follows

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To follow the moral values of Buddhist religion.

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To eradicate Vedic Karmakanda or Ritualism.

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To provide education in the language of masses i.e. Pali.

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To emphasize the progress and development of the society rather than the individual.

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To provide education through the new system, this was stated by Buddha.

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To give up the caste system.

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To achieve the final goal of Nirvana.

Methods of Teaching

The following are methods adopted in Buddhist Philosophy for teaching

Agra Shishyo Pranali (Monitorial System) Methods of Teaching Preaching and Conference Method Travelling Mostly and Nature Verbal »ath Study Discussions Method and Debates The two-tier system was adopted in education system as follows: Two-Tier System of Education Popular Elementary Education I Curriculum af Elementary Education • Hetu Vidya (Logic) -Nyaya (Science and reasoning) • Adyatma Vidya (Philosophy) • Shilpasthan (Art and arafto) • Chikitsya Vidya (Medicine) Higher Education Curriculun of Higher Education • Buddhism • Hinduism -Astrology • Medicine • Administration • Tantrik Philosophy • Logia • Meta physics

Educational Implications

Total Development of Personality Buddhist education laids much emphasis on physical, mental and spiritual development. Even today the aim of education is integration of personality that can develop the various aspects of the individual which are interlinked.

Positivism Buddhist philosophy is positivistic and has a careful logical systematization of ideas.

Ethical It is ethical, the eightfold path to Nirvana makes a universal appeal.

Cosmopolitan Buddhist education was free from communal narrowness, there was no favoritism on the basis of caste, creed in the centers.

No Corporal Punishment Corporal punishments were absolutely forbidden, which is also very true in the present scenario of education,

Development of Good Conduct The entire techniques of Buddhism provide directions to develop good conduct and which is also the essence of a sound system of education.

Moral Discipline Character was the basis of moral discipline, The monk took the vows of chastity and of poverty.

Emphasis on Manual Skills Training of manual skills like spinning and weaving was emphasized to enable men to earn for living.

Educational Implications of Buddhism

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Emphasis on simple life and high thinking

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Emphasis on values Emphasis on mass education

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Emphasis on spread of higher education

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Emphasis on development of art and literature

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Emphasis on state patronage of education

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Emphasis on higher standard of education

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Emphasis on ideal relationship between teacher and the taught

Symbols of Buddhism

Buddhist's symbols have special meanings that remind us of Buddha's teachings. The main room or building is called a Shrine or a Buddha Hall. In front of this room, there is an Altar.

There are many symbols and beautiful things on the Altar, which are as follows

Buddhist's Symbols

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Images of the Buddha

2.

Traditional Offerings

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Dharma Instruments

Images of the Buddha :There are many different kinds of Buddha and Bodhisattva images that show different qualities. e.g., a statue of the Buddha with his hand resting gently on his lap reminds us to develop peace within ourselves. A statue with the Buddha's right hand touching the ground shows determination. Traditional Offerings Traditional offerings are to show respect to the Buddha.

Traditional Offerings Ł Ł ± ŁŁ Flowers Light from.tamps Incense Water I I or candles I I These are offered [ These.remind This This represents as reminders These oneto.be represents us to gve of how.quickly symbolises peaceful purity our best to things.changes wisdom the Buddha

Dharma Instruments The instruments used in ceremonies and meditation are called Dharina instruments. Each instrument has a specific use, for instance, the wooden fish is hit to keep rhythm.

Delle Glve signals in ceremonies and meditation Dharma Instruments I Druma Annouioea cerernonies and keep rhythm

Curriculum

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As Buddha stressed actions, the curriculum of Buddhist education includes practical activities. These practical activities include physical, intellectual, moral and social actions.

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For achieving salvation, moral education, meditation, and intelligence have been considered necessary. Although Buddha usually avoids long discussions, yet towards superstitions, orthodox views, and useless rituals he had the approach of a modern scientist.

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Training of senses was emphasized in Buddhistic education which helps in detachment, destruction of passion, end of miseries, achievement of mental peace, knowledge, wisdom and Nirvana.

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Everything remains in this world for some time and then it meet's its end in the same way as one wave goes. By illusion, we consider the continuity of sequence as permanent.

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Thus, he suggested social science, moral education, ethics, science etc. and co­curricular activities including social service, welfare of all, non-violence and behavior of the student should be according to the vows emphasized by Buddhist thoughts.

Discipline

Buddha teaching contains three major points i.e. discipline, meditation and wisdom. Wisdom is the goal and deep meditation is the crucial process towards achieving wisdom. Discipline through observing the precepts is the method that helps one to achieve deep

meditation, wisdom will then be realized naturally. Buddha's entire teaching as conveyed in the Sutra never depart from these three points.

After getting education in the Buddhist schools, colleges and universities one cannot do any injustice, tell a lie, commit theft, cannot kill, cannot be addicted to wine and make himself free from moral turpitude. In this way, students become free from greed, lust, enmity and ignorance.

The monk and the students in the Buddhist period were following the simple living and high thinking principle. Their lives were full of purity, dutifulness and are suppose to follow the Astang Marg

Role of a Teacher

The duties of the teachers were imparting education to the students, writing books, propagation of religion, discussion, and arrangement of debate for the clarification of serious subjects. The teachers were responsible for physical, mental, spiritual and moral development of the students. Teachers loved the students and helped them in every affair. They also took care of them during their diseases and agony.

During the Buddhist period, the place of teacher in the scheme of education was very important. There were the categories of teachers i.e. Acharyas and Upadhayas. The teachers were responsible for their food, accommodation and other necessities of livelihood. They kept eyes on the all round development of the students. Especially, they were serious about the obedience of the rules, meditation and concentration to their learning.

Both the teacher and the student were responsible for the Buddhist's order. But regarding education, clothes , food and residence of the student monk, the teacher was wholly responsible. The teacher was also responsible for any treatment of the student whenever he fell ill. The teacher used to bestow all the affection to his student and used to educate him through lecture and question-answer method. The teacher was regarded as the spiritual father or intellectual father of the student.

Jainism

Jainism is one of the major religions that flourished in India prior to Buddhism and Christianity. This is a transethnic religion of India, which believes that human beings can conquer worldly passions through physical and mental control. Jainism left a remarkable impact on Indian civilisation. Jains are extremely rich and extensive with a huge number of epics, texts and stories.

The Jainas believe in 24 Tirthankaras. They are said to be Tirthankaras because they serve as the ferryman across the river of transmigration. The 24th Tirthankara was Vardhman Mahavira. The philosophical outlook of Jainism is the common sense, realism and pluralism.

The objects perceived by us are real and they are many.

Jainism traditionally known as "Jaina Dharma' prescribes a path of non-violence towards all living beings and emphasizes spiritual independence and equality between all forms of life. Thus, this religion is marked as the oldest religion of the world.

Core Principles of Jainism

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Non-violence The principle of non-violence or ahimsa is the most distinctive and well known aspect of Jaina religious practice. The Jaina's understanding and implementation of ahimsa is more radical, scrupulous and comprehensive than in other religions. Non-violence is seen as the most essential religious duty for everyone. A scrupulous and thorough application of non-violence to everyday activities and especially to food, is the most significant hall mark of Jaina's identity. The strictest forms of Jaina's diet are practiced by the ascetics, for Jains lacto­vegetarianism represents the minimal obligation i.e. food which contains even small particles of the bodies of dead animal or eggs is absolutely unacceptable. Jains make considerable efforts in every day life not to injured plants any more than necessary.

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Self-control Jainism encourages spiritual development through cultivation of personal wisdom and through reliance on self-control through vows. Jains accept different levels of compliance for ascetics and lay followers.

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Soul and Karma According to Jains, souls are intrinsically pure and possess the qualities of infinite knowledge, infinite perception, infinite bliss and infinite energy

In contemporary experience, however these qualities are found to be obstructed, on account of the soul's association with a substance called Karma over an eternity of beginning less time.

Doctrine of Jaina

Jaina metaphysics deals with Anekantavada or the Doctrine of Manyness of Reality. All objects of knowledge are manifold or multiform (Anekanta). They have infinite qualities and relations which distinguishes them from the other objects. Every object is what it is because of its positive and negative characteristics. Therefore, only the omniscient can know an object fully.

Every object possesses innumerable characteristics but it is impossible for ordinary people to know all the qualities of a thing. An ordinary person can know only some qualities of something. Human knowledge is necessarily relative and limited and so are all our judgements. This epistemology and logical theory of Jainas is called Syadvada.

As a matter of fact, both Anekantavada and Syadvada are the two aspects of the same teaching relativistic pluralism and realistic. The metaphysical side that reality has innumerable character is called Anekaritavada, while the epistemological and logical side that we can know only some aspects of reality is called Syadvada,

Jainism recognised the existence of the Gods, but placed them lower than the Jina. It did not condemn the Varna system, as Buddhism did. According to Mahavira, a person is born in a high or in a lower vama in consequence of the sins or the virtues acquired by him in the previous birth. In his opinion, through pure and meritorious life members of the lower castes can attain liberation. Jainism mainly aims at the attainment of freedom from worldly bonds. No ritual is required for acquiring such liberation. It can be obtained through right knowledge, right faith and right action. These are considered to be three jewels or triratna of Jainism. Jainism prohibited the practice of war and even agriculture for its followers because both involve the killing of living beings.

Path of Liberation for Jaina

The Jaina's teacher urges that right faith, right knowledge and right conduct are the three indispensable paths to self-realization or liberation. All the three should be practiced simultaneously. Hence, these three taken together have been called three Jewels. (Triratna)

Liberation is joint effort of these three i.e.

(i)

Right Faith (Samyak-Darshan) It is the attitude of respect towards truth. Right faith is sincere belief in the essential principle of Jainism.

(ii)

Right Knowledge (Samyak-Jnana) It is the state of detailed cognition of the real nature of the soul and non-soul. Right knowledge is free from doubt, error and uncertainty. For the attainment of perfect knowledge, the removal of Karmas that hinder in the way of attaining knowledge should be removed. Perfection of this process ends in the attainment of absolute omniscience (Kevaljnana).

(iii)

Right Conduct (Samyak-Charitra) Right conduct is what helps the soul to get rid of the Karmas and lead him to bondage. For the stoppage of the influx of new Karmas and for the wearing out of the Karmas that have already entered the soul, the aspirant must practice extreme carefulness (Samiti) in walking, speaking, etc.

Teaching of Jainism

Thus, in order to attain liberation, Jaina talked about five great vows (Pancha-Mahavrata)

The Panch-Mahavrata of Jain includes

Ahimsa or Non-Injury to Life It is based on the idea of potential equality of all souls. It is not only simply to take life but also one should not even think and speak of taking life nor even permit, nor encourage others to take life.

Satyam or Abstinence from Falsehood It consists in not only what is true, but also what is good and pleasant.

Asteyam or Abstinence from Stealing It consists in not taking what is not given. It is based on the idea of the sanctity of property.

Brahmacharyam or Abstinence from Self-Indulgence It consists in abstaining from all forms of sell-indulgence i.e. external and internal, subtle and gross, mundane and extra mundane, direct and indirect.

Aparigraha or Abstinence from all Attachment It consists in abstaining from all attachment of the five senses i.e. pleasant sound, touch, color, taste and smell.

Aims of Education

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Teaching should give necessary Jnana and penance to help Jiva.

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Believe in transmigration of soul, hence, education may partly be the preparation for the next world.

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Education should lead to self-enlightenment and restore the full potential of Jiva.

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Self-realization as Jiva is divine. Education must focus on his divinity and remove the material bonds of the soul.

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Education should help students to do Karma which leads towards Moksha.

Educational Implications

The Law of Karma (Cause and effect) Universe is ruled by moral law, which punishes all sins and rewards good deeds. Belief that our character creates its own heaven and hell is significant in nearly all schools of philosophy.

Highest State of Knowledge The highest state of knowledge is intuition through which man achieves a realization of oneness of the universe.

Integrated Education The contribution of Jain Philosophy in the development of Indian Philosophy has been significant. Jain Philosophical concepts like Ahimsa, Karma, Moksha, Sansara and the like have been assimilated into philosophies of other Indian religions like Hinduism and Buddhism.

Aim of Education The main objective of education in India, since earliest days of civilization, had been man-making ,who is capable of self-realization.

Concept of Compassion Sense of sympathy extends to all living beings, even to animals as stated in both Jainism and Buddhism.

Emphasis on Non-violence The feature of Philosophy is its strong emphasis on non­violence, accent on multiple facts of truth, morality and ethics.

Contribution to the Strain of Pacifism Absolute respect for living beings is stressed and the best way to resist evil is through non-violence.

Methods of Teaching

The following are the methods of teaching used in Jaina 's education

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Teaching through senses and meditation.

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Teaching should be social and tolerant.

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Teaching should be action based and ideally oriented.

Curriculum

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The Jaina system stressed that the Jiva has to face the consequences of its deeds. Its color, physical beauty, age and other senses are according to its deeds. Whatever gets in his life is the fruit of his own deeds, not the grace of God. Hence, the Jaina curriculum includes those subjects which lead students towards different actions or activities. And thus, the Jaina curriculum is activity-centered.

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A person dependent on others cannot practice his religion or duties in its true sense. Thus, one's own actions have been emphasized. Therefore, education should provide such an environment which is helpful in developing social and moral values in the students.

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The ultimate end of education is to attain salvation. If it is possible to repel our attachment from worldly pleasures many of our strong and unhealthy desires will

disappear. Then we shall devote ourselves to attaining salvation. As a result, one should have more faith in doing good to others.

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The ways suggested in Jainism to attain salvation will help us in achieving the aims of education. True education liberates the soul from bondage. This aim can be achieved through different subjects, Co-curricular activities and different cultural activities.

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Apart from this, Jaina curriculum also emphasized on vocational education. For this education of different vocations should be provided to the students. This will help in equipoising economic conditions in the country and in developing manpower also.

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Thus, the Jaina curriculum includes social sciences, natural science, moral education, vocational education and various co-curricular activities and yoga exercises.

Discipline

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Students should respect the teacher and treat them as God.

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Emulate all the ideal characters from their Gurus.

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One should be careful in the walk of life.

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Follow five vows to attain good conduct.

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Practice ten different Dharmas like, non-attachments, forgiveness, self-restraint, austerity, etc.

Role of a Teacher

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He/she should be the role model.

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A living exemplary will all vows.

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Gurus are considered as Gods.vow

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Train rigorously to liberate the soul from bondage

Dayanand Darshan

Among the contemporary Indian philosophers, Swami Dayanand may be called to be the greatest rationalist. While on the one hand, he was a great supporter of Vedas and other holy texts, his approach everywhere was that of a rationalist. He never accepted anything without meditating upon its advantages and disadvantages.

His magnum opus Satyartha Prakash is an eloquent testimony to his rationalism. Pointing out the object of this great work Dayanand wrote, "there is not the remotest idea to hurt the feelings of any person either directly or indirectly, but on the contrary, the book

proposes that men should distinguish truth from falsehood. Thus, since none but the practicing of truth is the cause of the improvement of the human family".

These words express both his rationalism and humanism. As is clear by the above object of the chief work of Dayanand, like a true humanist, he aimed at the progress of humanity on the path of happiness. Thus, it was in keeping with this aim that Dayanand presented his Philosophy.

Nature of Education

According to Swami Dayanand, education imparts true and real knowledge about master, self-development and welfare of all living beings. In other words, it should inculcate a spirit of service and help to others.

In this way, according to Swami Ji, education is a supreme and most important moral process for the development of mankind. Swami Dayanand says, "A man without education is only a man in name. It is bound in the duty of a man to get education, become virtuous, be free from malice and preach for all the well-being of people advancing the cause of righteousness".

Contribution of Dayanand

Education for Perfection

The discussion of the Philosophy of Education presented by Dayanand, leads one to the conclusion that his aim was education for perfection.

He sought this aim most vigorously, even sometimes presenting schemes which were far from practicable and demanding standards and virtues which could not be attained even by the selected person. He demanded a very high standard of character and conduct. He wanted to realize all round perfection.

Multi-Sided Curriculum

A perusal of this due to his curriculum given in Satyartha Prakash amply clarifies the fact that Dayanand aimed at perfection of man through education. It is most anxiety about achieving an all round and comprehensive perfection of man that he prescribed such a detailed curriculum which may appear too wide in the modern age of specialization and yet if one remembers the fact that specialized knowledge always creates a one sided

personality and never a total perfection, one may be able to appreciate Dayanand's stand point. It is undeniable that the scheme of education presented by Dayanand is too rigorous and beyond the capacity of most of the males and females in the present time.

Humanism and Rationalism

Besides the ideal of perfection as a humanist ideal, Dayanand showed his humanistic tendency in his strong condemnation of all superstitions, unscientific beliefs, immoralities and deceptions. In his support of science and the scientific outlook, he was more positive than many contemporary positivists.

He was among the foremost rationalists to emphasize upon the use of reason in every field of human life. While on the one hand, he had absolute respect for the Vedas, whom he considered to be divine, on the other hand, he advised everyone to distinguish truth and untruth, use rational criteria and accept only that which is supported by sound logic. Thus, if something appears to be out of date in his scheme of education that hardly detracts its value, since what is important is not the detailed scheme but the insight behind it.

Dayanand's educational philosophy is as kin to Vedic Vedic Philosophy, although his interpretation of Philosophy is unique. When he first preached his lesson, there was the greatest need to protect Hindu religion and Philosophy from the onslaughts of Muslim and Christian religions. He saved Hindu society. He protected the ancient Hindu values from the influence of Muslim and Christian cultures and tried to maintain the traditional modes of thinking. His ideas on education have great significance for contemporary educational Philosophy. The contribution of Swami Dayanand towards the Philosophy and practice of education is noteworthy. There is no gain saying the fact that the history of education of modern India cannot be complete without mention of his glorious contribution.

Aims of Education

Aims of education, according to Indian Tradition, is imparting Vidya, which is real knowledge. Dayanand considered that true education removes ignorance and increases knowledge and spiritual values like religiosity and self-control.

According to Dayanand, education has five characteristics, viz provision of right knowledge, cultivation of culture, increase of religiosity, increase of self-control and liberation from ignorance, such education is for the welfare in this world and also the other world.

In his book, Vyavahar Bhanu, Dayanand maintained that education is that by which man attains happiness and knowledge. It is through knowledge that one can attain happiness.

The function of education is to provide this vidya. Prior to defining right knowledge or Vidya, Dayanand pointed out the following characteristics of Avidya or ignorance.

Education aims at removing the above mentioned fourfold ignorance. Besides this negative aspect, education has a positive aspect in the provision of right knowledge.

Role of a Teacher

Great importance is given to the role of the teacher by Swami Dayanand. The teachers are to be learned, of good character and devoted to their task. There is no room for arrogant teachers who are not dedicated to their task. There has to be a close relationship, like that of a father and son, between the teacher and his pupil.

Discipline

Dayanand was a strict disciplinarian and believed in taking strong action against teachers and pupils, who broke the rules of the school.

Curriculum

In his scheme of education, Dayanand prescribed almost similar types of education for males and females. Besides a general curriculum for education from the four Varnas, Dayanand also prescribed some special studies for each Varna. He pointed out that only those books should be recommended for deep study which passes all scrutiny.

Methods of Teaching

Dayanand not only prescribed a detailed curriculum but also pointed out the impediments which should be avoided by the teachers and students, in order to achieve the aims of education. Describing these impediments, he wrote "Both the teachers and their scholars should avoid all those things that act as hindrances in the way of the acquisition of knowledge such as the company of the wicked people,

contraction of bad habits (such as the use of intoxications), fornication, child-marriage, want of perfect Brahmacharya, want of love on the part of the rulers, parents and learned men for the dissemination of knowledge of the Vedas and other Satras, over-eating".

He prescribed some teaching methods that are given below:-

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He says that the curriculum should be such which takes man to the path of truth.

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He pointed out the impediments which should be avoided by the teachers and students in order to achieve the aims of education.

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Both teachers and students must avoid obstacles such as the company of wicked people, dishonesty, etc.

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Teachers should have good memory and sound logic. He was supporting Vedic philosophy of education.

Educational Implications

Swami Dayanand brought into light the constructive, comprehensive character of the scheme of education. He tries to materialize the moral and spiritual welfare and upliftment of humanity irrespective of caste, creed, nationality or time.

Islamic Philosophy

Islamic Philosophy is a branch of Islamic studies, and is a longstanding attempt to create harmony between Philosophy (Reason) and the religious teachings of Islam (Faith). Islamic Philosophy, as the name implies, refers to Philosophical activity within the Islamic milieu.

The main sources of classical or early Islamic Philosophy are the religion of Islam itself (especially ideas derived and interpreted from the Quran). In early Islamic thought, two main currents may be distinguished i.e. Kalam, dealing mainly with theological questions, and founded on interpretation of Aristotelian and Neoplatonic Philosophy.

Concept of Islamic Education

Islamic philosophy concerned with matters such as the problem of unity and multiplicity, the relationship between God and the world. One of the most important principles in Islamic philosophy is the Principle of Divinity. Islamic philosophy was largely concerned with defining and elaborating God's attributes. God's attributes enumerated, but his essence was deemed to lie beyond human knowledge.

Islamic philosophy reconciles revelation with intellect, knowledge with faith and religion with philosophy. So, in Islamic philosophy, the result of revelation, intellect, faith, knowledge and religion matches and confirms each other.

Islam accounts for a great following in India, after Hinduism. Ideologically, it is a continuation of the ancient Mesopotamian tradition and recrystallisation of Judaism and Christianity, but does not support inter-religious borrowing. Islam means total submission to Allah or God.

Educational Implications

Islam is a religion for all mankind and is relevant to both spiritual and mundane life. Islam does not recognise the differences on the basis of caste, creed, wealth, language, race, region, etc.

Islam means peace through the submission to God. Islam essentially stands for deep religious life and at the same time defines a good living for the mankind. The object of Islamic education was attainment of worldly prosperity and social distinction. The main aim of education is to understand the relation of man with God as revealed in the Holy Quran.

Aims and Objectives

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To provide experiences which are based on fundamentals of Islam.

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To foster great consciousness of the divine presence in the universe.

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To provide the teachings of the Holy Quran as the first step of education.

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To provide experiences in the form of knowledge and skills with clear understanding that these experiences are likely to be changed in the light of changes in society.

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To encourage international brotherhood, irrespective of differences in generations, occupation and social class.

Methods of Teaching

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Recitation, learning Kalama and collective repetition.

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Writing, reading and oral methods and also monitor methods in Maktabs and Madrasas.

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Oral and monitorial.

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Akbar stressed on effective teaching by writing letters.

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Due to the Purdah system, women's education was totally neglected. Young girls were secluded and so education was a matter of great difficulty.

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There were no annual exams in the examination system.

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Evaluation was a continuous process.

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Promotion was based upon assessment by the teacher.

Basic Principles

a)

Free Education Education in Maktabs and Madarsa was free and compulsory up to elementary level for all Muslim children.

b)

Patronage of Education Almost all Muslim rulers setup Maktabs and Madarsa and showed their generosity, favour and love for education.

c)

Promotion of Cultural Unity No restriction of caste and religion to get admissions in Maktabs and Madrasas.

d)

Development of Literature and History Great attention was given to the growth of history and art of writing history, in fact, tradition of writing history had its root in this period. Various forms of literature also underwent significant growth.

e)

Monitorial System Monitorial system was also more commonly used.

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Practical and Useful Education Education was for preparation for practical life. Education achieved more objectivity.

g)

Encouragement to Persian Language and Science Persian language was the medium of education, so special emphasis was given on the teaching of Arabic and Persian language and the study of science subjects was emphasized.

Curriculum

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Reading, writing, arithmetic and religious education, at elementary stage.

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Astronomy, physics, medicine, algebra, geometry, law, history, economics, etc, at higher stages.

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Hindus were taught their own religious books and they were allowed at the Madrasas. Many of the Hindus also read Persian and acquired mastery.

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Science and art/craft was getting more of importance. Theological curriculum, Dare-E-Nizami were followed in India.