British Poetry - 6 Chapter Notes | Crash Course for UGC NET English Literature PDF Download

Notes on Shakespeare's Sonnets

Romantic Contrast

Lovely Boy (Fair Youth, Fair Lord)

• The Lovely Boy, also known as the Fair Youth or Fair Lord, is the enigmatic young man depicted in the first 126 of Shakespeare's Sonnets.
• This designation originates from the opening line of sonnet 126: 'O thou my lovely boy who in thy power....'
• Scholars engage in discussions about the identity of this young man, primarily considering two candidates: Henry Wriothesley, Earl of Southampton, and William Herbert, Earl of Pembroke.
• Both individuals were patrons of Shakespeare, with Henry Wriothesley often perceived as attractive.
• Other possible contenders have been proposed, including William Herbert or a fictional figure crafted for intrigue.

The Dark Lady

• The Dark Lady is a character in Shakespeare's Sonnets, particularly in Sonnets 127-154. She represents a figure of intense desire, passion, and frustration, shrouded in mystery.
• Scholars refer to her as the Dark Lady because of the highly sexualized language and strong emotions found in the poems about her. Shakespeare himself calls her 'dark' only once, in Sonnet 147.
• Some interpretations suggest that the Dark Lady is married to a man named Will and is pursued by the poet and another Will, who is a friend.
• Others believe she is based on Mary Fitton, a famous beauty from the Tudor court.
• The Dark Lady's desire for the Fair Young Man adds to the poet's feelings of alienation, and her character embodies unchecked passion and frustration. In Sonnet 154, the poet reflects on their disappearance, highlighting the complex emotions associated with her.

Other Poems of Shakespeare

Moonlit Turmoil

Rape of Lucrece (about 1593)

This is a long narrative poem consisting of seven-line stanzas that adhere to the rhyme royal pattern, with a rhyme scheme of ABABCC. Although the poem includes a summary of its plot in 'The Argument,' most educated individuals in the sixteenth century were already familiar with the story of Lucretia (Lucrece), a virtuous Roman wife. Coppelia Kahn, in 'Publishing Shame: The Rape of Lucrece,' characterizes it as 'a founding myth of patriarchy,' highlighting a social system where men wield significant power over women. The Roman society depicted in the poem was patriarchal, mirroring a similar, albeit slightly altered, system in early modern England.

The events of the poem are set around 509 BCE, during a period when Rome was a nascent city-state under the rule of a tyrant named Tarquinius Superbus (Tarquin the Proud). His son, Tarquinius Sixtus, perpetrated the rape of Lucretia, who was married to Collatinus (often referred to as Collatine in Shakespeare's works), a friend and relative of Tarquin.

The poem can be categorized into the following sections:

• (1) Tarquin’s journey to Rome and his reflections on Lucrece’s beauty and chastity, including events following his arrival (II. 1–189).
• (2) Tarquin’s thoughts prior to the rape, his entry into Lucrece’s bedchamber, and his perception of the lovely, sleeping Lucrece (II. 190–448).
• (3) Lucrece’s discovery of Tarquin, her pleas for mercy, Tarquin’s justifications for his actions, the act of rape, and his subsequent departure (II. 449–749).
• (4) Lucrece’s lament, holding Night, Time, and Opportunity accountable for the crime, and her internal struggle regarding the potential tarnishing of her honour (II. 750–1211).

Lucrece’s Letter to Collatine

Eternal Mourning

• Lucrece urgently asks Collatine to return immediately (II. 1212–1365).
• She reflects on the painting depicting the fall of Troy (II. 1366–1582).
• When Collatine arrives, Lucrece tells her story, leading to her tragic end and the revenge of her kinsmen, which results in the exile of the Tarquins (II. 1583–1855).

A Lover’s Complaint (1591)

• The timing of A Lover’s Complaint ’s writing is under debate, with experts suggesting dates between 1591 and 1604.
• It was printed in 1609 alongside Shakespeare’s Sonnets, but discussions about its authorship continue.
• The poem consists of 329 lines written in Iambic Pentameter, divided into 47 stanzas following Rhyme Royal.
• Some researchers see resemblances to Edmund Spenser’s Prothalamion (1596), which praised marriage.
• However, A Lover’s Complaint presents a more somber narrative of a young woman who is seduced and then forsaken by a charismatic lover.

The Phoenix and Turtle (before 1601)

• The poem opens with an invitation to birds to participate in a funeral procession for the Phoenix and the Turtledove.
• It includes a heartfelt anthem celebrating the intense love between these two characters.
• Thematic persona Reason grapples with understanding the unique connection between the exceptional Phoenix and the steadfast Turtledove.
• Reason mourns the deceased lovers, acknowledging that with their passing, Truth and Beauty are also interred (1.64).

The Phoenix and Turtle

Mythical Renaissance

• The poem was initially included in Robert Chester’s Love’s Martyr in 1601, along with poems by other writers like John Marston, George Chapman, and Ben Jonson.
• It is composed in tetrametre and features quatrains with specific rhyme patterns, ending with triplets that create a Threnos or funeral song, which, though less common in Shakespeare's era, would have been recognizable to an Elizabethan audience.
• While the poem doesn’t adhere to a strict genre, the narrator's remarks on love at times suggest a BEAST FABLE, where animal figures represent individuals known to Shakespeare.
• Most critics view the poem as a tribute to love, with a prevalent belief that the Phoenix symbolizes Queen Elizabeth I.

Philip Sidney

Astrophil and Stella

• Astrophil and Stella is among the earliest complete sonnet sequences in English literature, reflecting the verse of the English Renaissance.
• The collection comprises 119 poems in total, including 108 sonnets and 11 songs.
• The sonnets are penned in iambic pentametre or iambic hexametre, variations of the English and Italian sonnet forms, accompanied by 11 songs of diverse styles.
• The protagonist, Astrophil, enamoured with Stella, is the speaker throughout the poems, except for the Eighth Song, which is narrated in the third person.
• Astrophil and Stella significantly impacted the evolution of English poetry and is often credited with sparking the sonnet trend of the 1590s.
• Sidney’s close association with Petrarchism was such that a contemporary referred to him as ‘our English Petrarke ’.

The Poetry of Puritan and The Restoration Age

Romantic Metaphysics

The Metaphysical Poets

• The term ‘Metaphysical’ was popularized by critic Samuel Johnson in the 18th century, although the concept of ‘Metaphysics’ predates this period.
• Initially, this label was intended as a criticism, as Johnson believed these poets lacked emotion and employed overly complex imagery and comparisons.
• Despite being overlooked for a long time, the metaphysical poets have had a profound impact on British literature.
• Walter Scott distinguished between Elizabethan poets, who played with words, and metaphysical poets, who engaged with thoughts.
• Their poetry is characterized by the use of conceits, metaphors, paradoxes, and an intellectual depth that challenges readers.
• For example, Abraham Cowley’s comparison of a lover’s heart to a hand grenade illustrates this complexity.
• As a result, their work is considered unconventional, lacking a uniform style.

Astrophil and Stella

• The poems are told from the perspective of Astrophil, who is in love with Stella.
• In a typical Petrarchan manner, Astrophil experiences deep love for Stella, but she repeatedly rejects him in a harsh way.
• Sidney often uses Petrarchan language, such as the oxymoron ‘cruel fair’, to describe Stella as beautiful yet cold.
• He frequently employs a Blazon, which is a detailed description of Stella’s features.
• There is also the common Petrarchan idea that Stella’s eyes have the power to pierce Astrophil’s heart.

John Donne

Navigating Emotions

To His Mistress Going to Bed

• In this poem, John Donne presents intriguing paradoxes and comparisons, likening a woman's body to uncharted territory, reminiscent of America, eagerly awaiting exploration.
• He often faces criticism for objectifying women, as the speaker expresses a desire not only for physical intimacy but also for possession and control over the woman.
• ‘O my America! my new-found-land, My kingdom, safeliest when with one man mann’d,’

A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning

• This poem delves into themes of love and separation, where the speaker urges the beloved to part without tears or protests, emphasizing that true love is eternal and pure.
• Donne employs vivid imagery, comparing the lovers to a compass, which remains steadfast and united despite physical separation.
• ‘As virtuous men pass mildly away,
• And whisper to their souls to go’
• ‘If they be two, they are two so
• As stiff twin compasses are two’

The Flea

• In this poem, John Donne presents a witty argument where a lover persuades the beloved to engage in intimacy by suggesting that the flea's bite has united them, as it has drawn blood from both.
• The mingling of blood is portrayed without shame, sin, or guilt, implying that three lives coexist within the tiny flea.
• The poet describes the flea's body as a ‘marriage bed’ and a ‘marriage temple’, blending reason and emotion to create a unique concept and imagery.
• ‘Mark but this flea, and mark in this,
• How little that which thou deniest me is;’

The Sun Rising

Eternal embrace

Summary of the Poem

• The Sun Rising is a poem by John Donne that portrays a conversation between lovers and the sun.
• The speaker criticizes the sun for interrupting their love with its light and questions why it disturbs them through windows and curtains.
• The poem emphasizes that love is not bound by time, season, or place.
• The speaker argues that love transcends the usual markers of time, such as hours, days, and months, which are seen as insignificant.
• Donne personifies the sun as a “busy old fool” and a “saucy pedantic wretch,” suggesting that it should focus on more mundane tasks, like scolding schoolboys or calling farmers to work.
• The lovers are portrayed as being in their own world, free from the sun’s demands, and their love is depicted as timeless and unchanging.

Critical Analysis of the Poem

• The poem is an Aubade, where Donne shows that love is not confined by season or time. While lying in bed with his lover, he criticises the sun, calling it a ‘busy old fool’ and questioning why it disturbs the lovers through windows and curtains.
• The speaker challenges the sun's authority, suggesting that love does not adhere to its schedule.
• The poem concludes with the idea that love is constant and unchanging, regardless of the external circumstances imposed by the sun.

The main theme of the poem is the idea that love is timeless and not bound by the constraints of time or season.

The Canonization

Summary of the Poem

• In The Canonization, John Donne explores the idea of love that is so intense and pure that it transcends earthly concerns and societal norms.
• The poem portrays the lovers as saints, suggesting that their love is spiritual and eternal.
• Donne challenges the societal rules that often disrupt true love, arguing that their love is beyond such constraints.
• He also critiques Petrarchan sonnets, which typically idealize love, by stating that their love has not caused any harm, such as a merchant's ship drowning or a plague.
• The poem concludes with the idea that the lovers achieve immortality, similar to the phoenix that rises from its ashes, emphasizing the enduring nature of their love.

Critical Analysis of the Poem

• The lovers are so intertwined in their love that they become a single entity, symbolizing the unity and strength of their bond.
• The poem also highlights the idea of self-sacrifice and devotion in love, as the lovers are willing to die for each other, just like the eagle and the dove, which are symbols of strength and peace.
• The phoenix symbolizes rebirth and regeneration, reflecting the idea that true love never dies and can rise from any adversity.
• The poem suggests that love has the power to transcend time and space, making the lovers immortal through their bond.

Death’s Duell

Summary of the Poem

• Death's Duell is a sermon by John Donne, which was posthumously published in 1632. The sermon reflects on the relationship between death and the soul, emphasizing the idea that the soul is not subject to death in the same way the body is.
• Donne argues that death is not an end but a transformation, where the soul is separated from the body and enters a new state of existence. He uses various biblical references and examples to illustrate this point, highlighting the importance of the soul and its eternal nature.
• The sermon also delves into the concept of sin and redemption, discussing how the soul can be purified and saved from eternal damnation. Donne emphasizes the need for repentance and faith in God to achieve salvation.
• Throughout the sermon, Donne's eloquent language and persuasive arguments aim to provide comfort and hope to those facing death, reminding them of the eternal nature of the soul and the possibility of redemption.

Critical Analysis of the Poem

• The sermon is titled as the author’s funeral sermon by sacred authority.

Andrew Marvell

Seize the moment

To His Coy Mistress

• The poem revolves around the theme of carpe diem, where the speaker urges his shy lover to seize the moment and embrace love before time and death intervene.
• “Had we but world enough and time, This coyness, lady were no crime.” (Stanza 1, Thesis)
• “But at my back I always hear Time’s winged chariot hurrying near;” (Stanza 2, Antithesis)
• “Now, therefore, while the youthful hue Sits on thy skin like morning dew, And while thy willing soul transpires” (Stanza 3, Synthesis)

The Garden

• This poem incorporates romantic elements from nature to convey the poet's sentiments about life.
• It is associated with Robert Boulter in 1681.

An Horatian Ode upon Cromwell’s Return from Ireland

• Composed in 1650, this poem lauds the achievements of the Commonwealth and stands as one of the notable political poems in English literature.
• “And now the Irish are asham’d To see themselves in one year tam’d: So much one Man can do, That does both act and know.”

On Mr. Milton’s Paradise Lost

• The ode commends John Milton's epic work Paradise Lost.

George Herbert

• Herbert's writings convey a range of emotions regarding God, from skepticism to admiration.
• His connection with God is intricate; he oscillates between doubt and belief, often engaging in childlike arguments with the divine.
• He is renowned for The Temple, a compilation of 150 poems penned in an informal, conversational manner.

Easter Wings

• Featured in The Temple, this poem exemplifies emblem poetry and offers a spiritual contemplation on the atonement of Jesus Christ.

The Collar

Childhood Mystique

• The poem opens with a strong refusal of God's will but ends with a humble acceptance.
• First Stanza: "I struck the board, and cried, 'No more. I will abroad! What? Shall I ever sigh and pine?"
• Last Stanza: "But as I raved and grew more fierce and wild at every word, methought I heard one calling, Child! And I replied, My Lord."
• Henry Vaughan presents a romantic and positive view of the world, filled with innocence, mysticism, and visions of the countryside. In contrast, Herbert's depiction focuses on anguish, struggle, and the process of negotiation with God.
• Emblem poetry is characterized by a structure that creates a visual image, such as the wings depicted in the poem.

The Retreat

• The title of this poem, "The Retreat," comes from Forrest Reid's main novel in a trilogy that explores childhood and the loss of innocence.
• The poem expresses the speaker's desire to return to a time in the past when he experienced angelic infancy, a period marked by youth and happiness.

Richard Crashaw as a Poet

• Richard Crashaw's poetry is deeply focused on religious themes and is known for its exaggerated style. He often explores intense subjects such as ecstasy and martyrdom in his works.
• He was born to a Puritan clergyman but later converted to Catholicism around the age of 33, which influenced his poetic themes.
• Some of his notable works include:
• Steps to the Temple: A collection of religious poetry.
• Carmen Deo Nostro: Another poetry collection.
• Wishes to his Supposed Mistress: A famous poem reflecting his poetic style.

Caroline Age (1625–1649)/Cavalier Poets

• The term 'Caroline' is derived from 'Carolus,' the Latin name for Charles, and refers to the period during the reign of Charles I in England.
• Charles I ruled England from 1625 until his execution in 1649, a period marked by significant political and cultural changes.
• The term 'Cavalier' is used to describe these poets, suggesting that while they were skilled with words and poetry, they were not as adept in military matters, as implied by the phrase "skilled with words but not with swords."

The Cavalier Poets

Cavalier Elegance

The Cavalier poets are known as the ‘sons of Ben Jonson. This group of monarchists includes famous figures such as Carew, Herrick, Lovelace, and Suckling.

Robert Herrick

Hesperides (1648)

• A collection of poetry with 1200 lyrical poems emphasizing the theme of 'Carpe diem'.

To the Virgins, to Make Much of Time

• A four-stanza poem from Hesperides.
• One of the most famous poems on the Carpe diem theme.
• Famous lines include: ‘Gather ye rose-buds while ye may, Old Time is still a-flying; And this same flower that smiles today, Tomorrow will be dying.’

To Daffodils: Fair Daffodils We Weep to See

• Compares the shortness of human life to the fleeting nature of daffodils.
• Reinforces the Carpe diem philosophy.

Carpe diem

• A Latin phrase meaning ‘seize the day’, coined by the Roman poet Horace to encourage enjoying life while one can.

Corinna’s Going a Maying

• A lyric poem set in a pastoral context, embodying the Carpe diem philosophy.