British Drama - 7 Chapter Notes | Crash Course for UGC NET English Literature PDF Download

The Augustan Age and the Age of Johnson

Neo-Classical Drama

Neo-Classicism refers to an approach to art and life that prioritizes order, balance, and structure. This movement is typically divided into three main periods: the Restoration, the Augustan Age, and the Age of Johnson. The Augustan Age, named after the Roman Emperor Augustus, signifies the early eighteenth century when writers sought to emulate the styles of ancient Roman and Greek authors. This era also marks the emergence of the middle class, who were increasingly concerned with issues of morality and social status. The period roughly spans from the reign of Queen Anne (1702–1714) to the death of Jonathan Swift in 1745.

Characteristics of the Drama of This Age

• With the rise of satirists and essayists, drama took a backseat, and prose and satire became the leading forms of literature.
• The Comedy of Manners declined during this period, paving the way for sentimental comedy, which was more genteel, didactic, and often dull.
• In sentimental comedies, the focus shifted from laughter to tears, reflecting a change in thematic emphasis.
• The settings of these plays became increasingly melodramatic and distressing, lacking the engaging qualities of earlier works.
• Common characters in sentimental comedies included earnest lovers, tragic heroines, honest servants, rogues, gallants, and clever young women.
• The overall quality of plays during this time saw a significant decline, leading to reduced audience interest and engagement.

Important Authors of the Period

Comedic Misunderstandings

Oliver Goldsmith

• Goldsmith was an Irish dramatist, playwright, and a very productive poet.
• His most significant plays include:
• The Good-Natured Man (1768)
• She Stoops to Conquer (1773): Also known as Mistakes of a Night, this play revolves around the mix-ups that happen throughout one night, leading to many funny situations. Mr. Hardcastle wants his daughter Kate to marry his friend’s son Marlow, while Mrs. Hardcastle wishes for her son Tony Lumpkin to wed her ward Constance Neville, who loves Marlow’s friend Hastings. Confusion arises when Tony tricks Marlow and Hastings into thinking that Hardcastle’s house is an inn. Marlow struggles to talk to women of high society; hence, Kate pretends to be a servant to win his affection. Tony also devises plans to bring Hastings and Constance together. In the end, both couples are happily united, and all misunderstandings are cleared up.

Richard Sheridan

• Richard Sheridan was an Irish playwright and satirist who aimed to bring back the fading comedy of manners.
• He was the owner of the London Theatre Royal at Drury Lane for many years.
• In 1787, he made a speech in the House of Commons demanding the impeachment of Warren Hastings, the first Governor-General of Bengal, who later became the Governor-General of India.
• The Rivals (1775): This was Sheridan's first play, which opened at Covent Garden but initially did not impress the audience, leading to actors being hit with things during the performance. Set in Bath, a fashionable English town, the play features Lydia, a character excited by the idea of running away with a poor soldier after reading popular novels. The funniest character is Mrs. Malaprop, known for her misuse of similar-sounding words. The term malapropism originated from her character.

The School for Scandals (1777)

Victorian Morality

• Premiered at Drury Lane Theatre
• Charles Surface, a generous but reckless spender, is central to the story
• Joseph Surface, his brother, plots to seize their uncle's fortune and is involved in an affair with a young noblewoman
• Sir Oliver Surface, their uncle, visits incognito to assess their character and intentions
• Joseph's deceit is exposed, leading to Charles inheriting the fortune and marrying Maria, Lady Sneerwell's ward
• Lady Sneerwell, who spreads damaging gossip, is a key antagonist

Richard Steele

• An Irish writer and politician of repute
• Co-founded The Spectator magazine with Joseph Addison
• Played a significant role at Drury Lane Theatre

The Conscious Lovers (1723)

• Steele's most acclaimed play
• Breaks away from the usual comedic style of the era
• Highlights the significance of morality and proper conduct over vulgar humour

Victorian Age

• Spanning from 1837 to 1901 during Queen Victoria's reign
• Marked the final phase of monarchical governance in Britain
• Known as the era of democracy with the passage of numerous reform bills, including the abolition of slavery and religious tolerance for Catholics
• Witnessed major advancements in education and societal reforms
• Characterised by rapid industrial growth and technological innovations
• Inventions such as the steam engine, electric power, and mechanised spinning drastically transformed daily life and industry

Major Events of the Age

Victorian Realism

• 1832: Reform Bill
• 1837: Victoria became queen
• 1854: Crimean War (One of the first wars to be widely reported by the press, especially by The Times journalist William Russell )
• 1857: Indian Mutiny
• 1870: Education Act made education compulsory
• 1887: Queen Victoria’s Silver Jubilee
• 1901: Edward VII became king

Literary Characteristics of the Age

• This period saw the flourishing of all forms of literature, but it is particularly recognized as the age of prose.
• Novels emerged as the primary form of entertainment, while the popularity of drama declined.
• Literature from this era reflects a departure from romantic notions and the artistic principle of 'art for art's sake,' moving towards a tradition with a moral purpose.
• The focus on realism in literary works aimed to portray the true condition of society along with its intricacies and challenges.
• While art and science advanced rapidly, prose and poetry during this time conveyed a sense of pessimism and melancholy.
• This era is also marked by the significant contributions of essayists like Macaulay, Carlyle, and Ruskin, who influenced the prevailing mood of the period.

Major Dramatists

Oscar Wilde

• Oscar Wilde was known for his popular comedies of manners.
• One of his famous works, Lady Windermere’s Fan, is a play in four acts that tells the story of Lady Windermere, a young woman who suspects her husband of having an affair with a woman named Mrs. Erlynne. In her distress, she turns to Lord Darlington for help. However, as the story unfolds, it is revealed that Mrs. Erlynne is actually Lady Windermere's estranged mother. Mrs. Erlynne intervenes to protect her daughter’s reputation, ultimately marrying Lord Augustus and keeping her true identity a secret.

Salome

Victorian Corruption

• This play, written in one act, narrates the Biblical tale of Salome, the stepdaughter of Herod. In the story, Salome requests the head of John the Baptist on a silver platter after captivating Herod with her dance, famously known as the dance of seven veils. Although the play was originally penned in French, it faced a ban by Lord Chamberlain.

A Woman of No Importance (1893)

• This play serves as a satirical commentary on the upper-class English society, exposing the double standards prevalent during the Victorian era. It illustrates how women were subjected to more severe consequences for their indiscretions compared to men.

An Ideal Husband (1895)

• Considered one of Wilde’s finest works, this play delves into themes of political corruption and the disparity between public and private conduct.

The Importance of Being Earnest, A Trivial Comedy for Serious People (1895)

• This play offers a critique of the English upper class and their trivial preoccupations. It challenges the institution of marriage and questions the criteria for selecting a life partner.
• Following the performance of this play, Wilde faced legal repercussions for "gross indecency" due to his homosexual relationships, leading to his imprisonment.

J. M. Synge

• J. M. Synge set his plays in the Aran Islands of Ireland, infusing them with a distinct local flavour.

Riders to the Sea

• First performed in 1904, this touching one-act tragedy portrays the fragility of humanity in the face of the unyielding forces of fate and nature. In this play, the sea symbolizes the formidable powers against which the characters struggle in vain.

The Playboy of the Western World (1907)

• This three-act play made its debut at the Abbey Theatre and centres around Christy Mahon, who finds himself celebrated for his story of patricide instead of being condemned for the act itself.

Modern Age

Poetic Alienation

Alienation and Materialism in Modern Drama

• Drama had been declining in earlier centuries until the Modern Age when various writers began to explore new themes and techniques.
• A central theme in Modern Drama is alienation, reflecting a sense of disconnection as society shifted towards materialism.

Realism in Modern Drama

• Popularised by Norwegian playwright Henrik Ibsen, Realism revealed the complex realities of social life.
• Playwrights like G. B. Shaw and Galsworthy mastered this technique, highlighting everyday truths beneath a cheerful facade.

Examples of Realism

• A Doll’s House by Ibsen
• Arms and the Man by G. B. Shaw

Ibsen's Controversial Play

• Ghosts, written in Norwegian and first performed in 1881, faced criticism for its subject matter concerning syphilis, earning the label ‘an open sewer’.

Poetic Drama

Decline and Revival

• Poetic dramas declined after the 17th century as prose replaced poetic forms.
• Movements like Naturalism and Realism pushed poetic dramas aside.

Shift to Imaginative Themes

• A shift back to imaginative themes led to a revival of poetic drama.
• Writers began telling stories set in unique places and times.

Notable Revival Writers

• T. S. Eliot
• Christopher Fry

Collaborations and Later Works

• Collaborations between W. H. Auden and Christopher Isherwood, such as The Dawn Beneath the Skin and The Ascent of F6: A Tragedy in Two Acts, emerged later.

Irish Drama

Irish Domestic Drama

The 20th century is considered a period of Renaissance in Irish literature. Writers like W. B. Yeats, J. M. Synge, and Lady Gregory sought to portray the Irish experience in their works. The Abbey Theatre, known as the National Theatre of Ireland in Dublin, was closely associated with the authors of the Irish Literary Revival. It became a home for notable Irish playwrights, including:

• William Butler Yeats
• Lady Gregory
• Seán O’Casey
• John Millington Synge

Kitchen-Sink Drama

The term ‘ Kitchen Sink ’ originates from an expressionist painting by John Bratby depicting a kitchen sink. It refers to dramas featuring characters who are angry, poor, and disillusioned with reality, often set in domestic environments. While this style gained popularity in the 1960s through writers like Arnold Wesker and Shelagh Delaney, similar themes were explored by earlier modern realistic playwrights.

Ibsen, a Norwegian playwright, revolutionized modern drama and is regarded as the Father of Modern Drama for introducing significant societal issues at a time when theatre faced challenges. He wrote under the pseudonym Brynjolf Bjarme and created numerous plays, which he referred to as drama of ideas.

His Major Plays

• A Doll’s House (1879): This play delves into the lives of women with limited freedom and complete dependence on men. The protagonist, Nora, reflects on her marriage and the oppression she endures within it.

Ghosts (1881)

Haunting Choices

• Ghosts tackles challenging subjects such as incest, venereal disease, and religion in a harsh and unflinching manner.
• Despite Helen Alving's careful upbringing of her son Oswald, he inherits syphilis from his father and develops incestuous feelings for his half-sister.
• To escape the excruciating effects of syphilis, Oswald asks his mother for a morphine overdose.
• The mother is faced with the profound dilemma of whether to grant her son's tragic request.

An Enemy of the People (1882)

• Set against a backdrop of corruption and moral decay, Dr. Thomas Stockmann, the medical officer in Southern Norway, takes a courageous stand to expose the truth about contaminated spa water.
• However, his revelation is met with political opposition, leading to severe consequences for his honesty and integrity.

The Wild Duck (1884)

• A significant work in the genre of tragicomedy, this play follows the story of Gregers Werle, who returns from exile and reconnects with his friend Hjalmar Ekdal.
• As Gregers delves into Ekdal's life, he uncovers harsh realities hidden beneath the facade of his friend's seemingly happy family.
• "The Wild Duck" is widely regarded as one of Ibsen's most critically acclaimed and impactful works.

Hedda Gabler (1890)

• Hedda Gabler delves into deep psychological conflicts, focusing on the struggles of its central character, Hedda Gabler.
• Hedda, the daughter of a prominent general, finds herself trapped in a loveless and miserable marriage that she despises.
• The play takes a tragic turn as Hedda ultimately chooses to end her own life with a gunshot.
• It's important to note that "Gabler" is Hedda's maiden name, and Ibsen himself remarked that he designed her character to reflect the influence of her father, rather than her husband.

George Bernard Shaw

Victorian complexities

George Bernard Shaw was a famous Irish playwright and literary critic. He is unique for being the only person to have won both an Oscar and a Nobel Prize. Shaw was a strong advocate of Henry Ibsen’s realistic approach to drama. His plays are typically divided into two categories—pleasant and unpleasant—based on the themes he chose to explore.

Notable Works

• Mrs. Warren’s Profession (1893): This play tackles the serious issue of prostitution. It revolves around Mrs. Warren, a brothel owner with a past as a prostitute, and her attempts to bond with her daughter, who disapproves of her lifestyle.
• Arms and the Man (1894): The title is derived from the opening lines of Virgil’s Aeneid. This comedic play emphasizes the absurdity of war and the misguided notions of honour. The protagonist is often referred to as a 'chocolate-cream soldier' because he keeps chocolates in his ammunition pouch for practical reasons.
• Candida (1898): The story follows Candida, the wife of James Morell, who is pursued by the poet Eugene Marchbanks. He believes she deserves a better life than what her monotonous marriage offers. In the end, she chooses her husband, seeing him as the 'weaker of the two.'
• Major Barbara (1905): Barbara, the daughter of a wealthy ammunition manufacturer, dedicates herself to helping the poor through her work with the Salvation Army. She rejects her father’s money, believing it to be corrupt. He argues that his wealth could be used to alleviate poverty and hunger.

The Doctor's Dilemma (1906)

Social Struggle

• This play presents a problem scenario that underscores the challenges posed by limited medical resources during a crisis and the difficult decisions regarding prioritizing patients for treatment.

Pygmalion (1912-13)

• In this play, Henry Higgins, a professor of phonetics, takes on the ambitious task of transforming Eliza Doolittle, a flower girl, to enable her to integrate into high society as a duchess.
• Higgins succeeds in refining Eliza's manners, elevating her to the status of a genteel lady.
• However, this transformation creates a dilemma for Eliza. She finds herself unable to return to her former life of selling flowers, yet she lacks the necessary support to sustain herself as an upper-class woman.
• As a result, Eliza's frustration with Higgins intensifies, and she holds him responsible for her predicament.
• The play concludes in a manner that defies traditional expectations.

Heartbreak House: A Fantasia in the Russian Manner on English Themes

• Heartbreak House draws inspiration from various sources, including the works of Chekhov, and provides a social commentary on typical Shavian themes related to social theory and sexual conflict, all set against the backdrop of World War I.

John Galsworthy

• Galsworthy is primarily recognized for his fictional narratives, especially the Forsyte novels, which chronicle the life of an upper-class family.
• These novels encompass titles such as:
  • The Man of Property
  • Indian Summer of a Forsyte
  • In Chancery
  • Awakening
  • To Let
• In addition to his success as a novelist, Galsworthy was a prominent playwright who tackled difficult real-life issues, including class disparities, prison conditions, and labor rights.
• Some of his most renowned plays include:

The Silver Box (1906)

• The Silver Box marks Galsworthy's inaugural play, a comedic work where the vanishing of a silver box containing cigarettes sheds light on the disparities between a politician's son and the son of an unemployed individual.
• This incident unravels various class and social concerns.

The Madras House (1910)

Struggle for Justice

• The Voysey Inheritance (1905)
• Waste (1907) : This play was banned.

Juno and the Paycock (1924)

Family Resilience

• The play is set in the tenements of Dublin during the Irish War of Independence and follows the story of the Boyle family.
• Among the four family members, only the mother, Mary, earns a living, symbolizing Juno in the play.
• The narrative delves into the impact of the Irish Civil War on the lives of lower-class individuals in Dublin.

Notable Quotes

• “ I often looked up at the sky an’ asked meself the question – what is the moon, what are the stars? ” – Captain Boyle, Act I
• “ Th’ whole worl’s in a terrible state o’ chassis ” – Captain Boyle, Act III, the final line of the play.
• “ It’s nearly time we had a little less respect for the dead, an’ a little more regard for the living. ” – Juno Boyle, Act II
• “ It doesn’t matter what you say, ma – a principle’s a principle. ” – Mary Boyle speaking about the strike.

The Plough and the Stars (1926)

• This play, a tragicomedy in four acts, ignited riots in Ireland due to allegations of slandering Irish patriots.

D. H. Lawrence

• D. H. Lawrence was not only a renowned poet and novelist but also a playwright who penned several plays set in realistic environments with authentic characters.
• His works are considered early instances of ‘kitchen-sink’ dramas, a genre that was in its nascent stages during his time.
• All of Lawrence's plays are set in Nottinghamshire, reflecting the local culture and issues.

Notable Plays

• A Collier’s Friday Night (1909): This play is set in a mining community and portrays Mrs. Lambert's challenges with her alcoholic spouse and her bond with her son, Ernest.
• The Daughter-in-law (1912): The play explores the dynamics within a family, focusing on the relationship between a daughter-in-law and her in-laws.
• The Widowing of Mrs Holroyd (1914): Inspired by Lawrence’s short story Odour of Chrysanthemums, the play narrates the life of Mrs. Holroyd, who harbors a deep-seated resentment towards her alcoholic husband. After his demise, she reflects on their tumultuous relationship.
• David (1926): This intense drama is based on the biblical tale of David, exploring themes of power, faith, and human struggle.

W. Somerset Maugham

Dramatic performance

His plays offered a middle-class perspective on love and money, which he considered the two most important aspects of life.

Notable Works

• The Circle (1921): A woman contemplates leaving her husband for another man and seeks guidance from an older individual.
• The Constant Wife (1926): This play explores themes of marriage and infidelity. It follows a woman who openly accepts her husband’s affair, viewing it as an opportunity for a fresh start.

Noel Coward

Coward was instrumental in reviving the comedy of manners and produced numerous musical dramas while penning hundreds of songs.

Notable Works

• Hay Fever : A farcical tale of an eccentric family that invites guests to spend the weekend with them.
• Private Lives (1930): A divorced couple embarks on honeymoons with their new spouses, only to realize they still have feelings for each other.
• Design for Living (1933)
• Blithe Spirit (1941)

J.B. Priestley

Priestley was a multifaceted English writer known for his novels, plays, screenwriting, broadcasting, and social critique. His novel, The Good Companions, is his most celebrated work, earning the James Tait Memorial Award.

Themes

A majority of his plays delve into the theme of time.

• Dangerous Corner (1932)
• Time and the Conways (1937)
• I Have Been Here Before (1937)
• An Inspector Calls (1946)

Christopher Fry

Originally named Arthur Hammond Harris, Fry gained prominence for his major plays written in the 1940s and 1950s. He was pivotal in the resurgence of poetic drama.

Plays by T. S. Eliot

Medieval Martyrdom

• A Phoenix too Frequent (1946)
• The Lady’s Not for Burning (1949) : This play is set in the Middle Ages and revolves around a weary soldier who has lost all hope and wishes to die, and an accused witch who desperately wants to live.
• Venus Observed (1950)
• A Sleep of Prisoners (1951)

Influence on Poetry

T. S. Eliot was a brilliant modern poet who significantly changed the course of English poetry by exploring themes of barrenness and alienation in the context of the modern materialistic world. In addition to his poetry, he was also known for his literary criticism and the poetic plays he wrote. Eliot praised the 17th-century poetic dramas in his essays, which had a profound influence on literature. For his remarkable contributions, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1948. Some of his major plays written in a poetic style include:

• Sweeney Agonistes (1926) : This play marks T. S. Eliot’s first attempt at writing a poetic drama.
• Murder in the Cathedral (1935) : This play is divided into two parts and depicts the final days of Archbishop Thomas Becket as he approaches martyrdom. The play begins with the Chorus and Becket’s return, illustrating his psychological struggle in choosing martyrdom, which can also be seen as an act of selfishness. The king sends four tempters offering safety, riches, power, fame, and finally the glory of martyrdom, with the last temptation being the hardest to resist. The Interlude features Becket’s sermon, and ultimately, the knights arrive and kill him.
• The Family Reunion (1939) : Written in blank verse, this play is a tragedy of revenge.
• The Cocktail Party (1949) : This play focuses on the troubled marriage of a couple who eventually find resolution through their experiences.

Introduction

Dramatic Encounter

T.S. Eliot was a renowned poet, playwright, and critic, who made significant contributions to literature in the 20th century. Born in St. Louis, Missouri, in 1888, he later moved to England, where he became a British citizen in 1927. Eliot's poetry often explored themes of modernity, spirituality, and the complexities of human experience, while his plays delved into similar subjects with a dramatic flair. Some of his most famous works include "The Waste Land," "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock," and "Murder in the Cathedral." Throughout his career, Eliot received numerous accolades, including the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1948. He remains a pivotal figure in modern literature, influencing generations of writers and poets with his innovative use of language and form.

Plays by T.S. Eliot

• The Confidential Clerk (1953): This play explores the themes of identity, family, and the complexities of human relationships. It revolves around a wealthy businessman and his family, who are confronted with secrets and revelations that challenge their perceptions of each other. The play delves into the psychological intricacies of the characters as they navigate through misunderstandings and hidden truths.
• The Elder Statesman (1958): In this play, Eliot examines the life of a retired statesman reflecting on his past and the legacy he leaves behind. The narrative delves into the themes of power, responsibility, and the passage of time, as the protagonist grapples with his achievements and failures. The play offers a poignant commentary on the nature of leadership and the impact of one's decisions on future generations.