Cultural Studies - 3 Chapter Notes | Crash Course for UGC NET English Literature PDF Download

Postcolonialism

Cultural Resistance

• Colonisation is linked with capitalism and industrialisation, aiming for economic gain by controlling less developed nations.
• The primary goal of colonisation was to maximise economic profit and expand power.
• It was also essential to control natives both economically and culturally.
• Postcolonial theory and literature examine the impact of the ‘game of power’, where colonisers are central and natives remain peripheral.

Impact on Identity and Culture

• Postcolonial writings explore how colonisation impacted the identity, culture, economy, and behaviour of the natives.
• Colonisers introduced English as a dominant language in many colonies, associating it with power and prestige.
• Natives used English to resist colonial forces and to create literature.
• English helped natives manage the empire and became important in literature departments across colonies.
• A significant amount of literature emerged as a response to the cultural misrepresentation of locals by the Western literary canon.
• Each colonised nation produced its own literature, reflecting their experiences and efforts to define a post-imperial sense of nation and identity.

Postcolonial Literature

Cultural Resistance

The literature created by colonized nations also delves into how the imposition of European superiority stifled the culture and civilization of the host land while attempting to impose their European culture to "civilize" the natives. These writings underscore the persistent divide between colonizers and the colonized, masters and slaves, the East and the West.

Postcolonial writings emerged as a form of resistance against the binary oppositions of the Orient and Occident, the West and the East, and the superior and inferior. Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness effectively illustrates the greed of imperialism in Africa, where the colonizers' sole interest rested in "ivory." A Passage to India by E. M. Forster represents the gap between the colonizers and the colonized, as Forster viewed India through a narrow and oriental lens.

Colonisation and Postcolonial Resistance

Colonisation began as an economically driven phenomenon and sustained itself through repression and control over the religion, language, culture, and identity of the natives. Postcolonial writings emerged as a resistance against the Eurocentric perspective that often depicts natives as inferior and subhuman while portraying the West as a center of knowledge, civilization, and enlightenment. Essentially, postcolonial writings serve as a voice for natives who have been silent against the Eurocentric literary canon for centuries.

Influential Postcolonial Texts

Postcolonial criticism gained momentum with the publication of influential books such as:

• In Other Words by Gayatri Spivak
• The Empire Writes Back by Bill Ashcroft
• Nation and Narration by Homi K. Bhabha

The Process of Colonization

Colonial Echoes

The process of colonization has been carefully examined by theorists like Edward W. Said in his influential work Orientalism (1978). In this text, Said highlights how the West constructed an image of the East as a place of darkness and exoticism, often depicting it with stereotypes such as snake charmers. He discusses the belief among the 'civilized' white race that it has a duty to 'civilize' the East. Key postcolonial thinkers such as Frantz Fanon, Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, Homi K. Bhabha, and Ngugi wa Thiong'o have extensively explored the concept of Postcolonialism.

Central Concerns of Postcolonial Studies

• Postcolonial theories focus on the politics of studying English literature and culture from the perspective of countries that experienced colonization.
• The main aim of postcolonial studies is to investigate the relationship between the colonizer and the colonized.
• Colonialism is viewed as a reaction from the colonizer, who oppresses and dominates those seen as 'Others'.
• This theory originally aimed to interpret works from countries that were colonized.
• Postcolonial literature often reveals the experiences of natives, highlighting their feelings of alienation and powerlessness.

Representations in Literature

Joseph Conrad, in his novel Heart of Darkness, portrays Africans in a negative light, describing them as 'shadows of disease and starvation'. This representation is frequently critiqued within postcolonial theory. Similarly, E. M. Forster depicts India in his novel A Passage to India as a land of 'heat and dust', filled with complexities and uncertainties.

Key Features of Postcolonial Literature

Cultural Remembrance

• Memory: The role of memory in shaping identities and narratives.
• Nostalgia: A longing for the past and its impact on cultural identity.
• Nation: The concept of the nation and its significance in postcolonial contexts.
• Nationalism: The rise and implications of nationalism in postcolonial societies.
• Violence: The presence and consequences of violence in postcolonial narratives.
• Gender Hybridity: The intersection of gender and cultural identities.
• Cultural Identity: The formation and expression of cultural identities in postcolonial settings.
• Ethnicity: The role of ethnicity in shaping individual and collective identities.

Edward Said (1935–2003)

Edward W. Said is a key figure in postcolonial studies, known for his influential work in critiquing Western perceptions of the East. Born in Palestine in 1935, Said spent much of his academic career at Columbia University. His seminal book, Orientalism, brought him international acclaim and sparked critical discussions about how the West constructs its image of the East.

In addition to Orientalism, Said authored several other important works that further explored themes of culture, imperialism, and literature. Some of his notable writings include:

• Joseph Conrad and the Fiction of Autobiography (1966)
• Beginnings: Intention and Method (1975)
• The Question of Palestine (1979)
• Covering Islam (1981)
• The World, the Text, and the Critic (1983)
• Yeats and Decolonization (1988)
• Culture and Imperialism (1993)
• Cultural Imperialism (1993)
• The Pen and the Sword (1994)
• Out of Place: A Memoir (1999)
• Reflections on Exile and Other Essays (2000)
• Edward Said Reader (2000)
• The End of the Peace Process (2000)
• Power Politics and Culture (2001)
• Parallels and Paradoxes (2002)
• Culture and Resistance (2003)
• The Politics of Anti-Semitism (2003)
• Freud and the Non-European (2003)
• Crimes of Terror: The Legal and Political Implications of Federal Terrorism Prosecutions (2015, posthumously published)

Orientalism by Edward Said

Cultural Exoticism

Edward Said discusses three key areas related to Orientalism, along with three overlapping spaces:

• A long history of cultural relations between Europe and Asia.
• The establishment of a scientific field dedicated to the study of Oriental languages and cultures.
• The stereotypes and perceptions of the Orient as the 'Other,' shaped by generations of Western scholars.

In his work, Edward Said examines the cultural differences between 'the Orient ' and 'the Occident.' He discusses how the West often portrays the East as:

• Primitive
• Irrational
• Savage
• Exotic

This portrayal leads to the belief that these developing countries need to be 'governed' and 'developed.' In contrast, the West is seen as a model of:

• Fairness
• Superiority
• Rationality
• Reason
• Civilisation

This creates the idea that Europeans must rule the 'uncivilised' East to make it civilised. It is important to note that the European view of the East has not only shaped Western attitudes but has also influenced how some people in the East perceive themselves. The desire of some natives to 'mimic' Western ideals comes from this image, which portrays the West as a symbol of superiority.

Oriental Discourse

The oriental discourse emphasises the disparity between the distorted image of the East and its actual administrative realities:

• It marks a shift from mere discussion to tangible events.
• Europe perceived the Orient as 'the other' and categorised it negatively.

Orientalism

Cultural Critique

Orientalism examines how literature in the 18th and 19th centuries shaped the European identity by portraying the East and West. Edward Said, in his book Orientalism, uses Jane Austen’s Mansfield Park to illustrate the interactions between the East and the West.

Key Points about Orientalism

• Mansfield Park and similar works reflecting Western perspectives on the East are central examples in Said’s Orientalism.
• The main aim of Orientalism is to analyse the discourse regarding the Orient and Occident.
• Said was greatly influenced by thinkers like Antonio Gramsci, Michel Foucault, and Jacques Derrida.

Strategic Essentialism

Cultural Hybridity

Strategic Essentialism refers to the idea that various minority groups, despite their differences in nationality, gender, and ethnicity, can unite to represent themselves based on shared cultural and political beliefs. This concept emphasizes the commonalities among these groups to advocate for their interests collectively.

Key Works by Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak

• Myself Must I Remark: The Life and Poetry of W. B. Yeats (1974)
• The Post-colonial Critic (1990)
• Thinking Academic Freedom in Gendered Post-Coloniality (1992)
• Outside the Teaching Machine (1993)
• The Spivak Reader (1995)
• A Critique of Post-Colonial Reason (1999)
• Death of a Discipline (2003)
• Other Asias (2003)
• Conversation with Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak (2006)
• Who Signs the Nation-State Language, Politics, Belonging (co-edited with Judith Butler) (2007)
• Conversation with Spivak (2008)
• Can the Subaltern Speak (2008)
• Nationalism and the Imagination (2010)
• An Aesthetic is the Era of Globalization (2012)
• Harlem (2012)
• Readings (2014)
• Ethics and Politics in Tagore, Coetzee and Certain Scenes of Teaching (2018)

Homi K. Bhabha is a prominent Indian critic and theorist currently teaching at Harvard University. He has made significant contributions to postcolonial criticism, particularly in understanding migration, culture, nationality, and postcolonial identity. Influenced by thinkers like Michel Foucault, Edward Said, Jacques Derrida, and Jacques Lacan, Bhabha's work has had a lasting impact on the field.

Key Concepts in Bhabha's Work

• Hybridity : The idea that cultural identities are formed through the blending of different influences, creating something new and unique.
• Mimicry : The concept of adopting and adapting elements from another culture, often with a twist, leading to a complex relationship between the colonizer and the colonized.
• Difference : Recognizing and emphasizing the differences within cultures, challenging the notion of a singular, homogeneous identity.
• Third Space : A conceptual space where different cultures intersect and interact, leading to the creation of new meanings and identities.
• Ambivalence : The mixed feelings and contradictory emotions that arise in postcolonial contexts, reflecting the complexities of identity and belonging.

In his influential work The Location of Culture, Bhabha delves into the impact of colonialism on cross-cultural relations and how the interplay of diverse communities gives rise to hybrid cultures and identities.

Key Concepts by Bhabha

Cultural Fusion

Mimicry

• Mimicry refers to the act of imitating someone or something.
• In the context of colonialism, Bhabha explains that colonised societies often mimic the culture, lifestyle, and language of their colonisers.
• This mimicry reflects the aspiration of the colonised people to resemble their colonisers, as they attempt to act, behave, speak, and think like them.

Hybridity

• Bhabha borrows the concept of hybridity from Edward W. Said’s work.
• He discusses how innovative cultural expressions emerge from the fusion of various cultures, identities, and practices.
• Bhabha posits that colonialism is not merely a historical event; its histories and cultures continue to influence the present.

Third Space

• The Third Space is a complex realm where diverse cultures, civilisations, individuals, and languages converge.
• This concept challenges the notion of culture as a singular, cohesive force tied to a specific historical identity.
• Bhabha’s ideas resonate with Benedict Anderson’s work on nationalism, which illustrates how national identity is constructed through cultural narratives.

Identity: The Real Me (1987)

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Nation and Narration (1990)

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The Location of Culture (1993)

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Raqib Shaw: Absence of God (2009)

Cultural Resistance

Our Neighbour, Ourselves: Contemporary Reflection on Survival (2011)

Midnight to the Boom: Painting in India after Independence (2013)

Frantz Fanon (1925–1961)

Frantz Fanon, a psychiatrist from Martinique, was a prominent figure in postcolonial theory. He played a significant role in Algeria’s War of Independence and was associated with the Algerian National Liberation Front. His work delves into the psychological effects of colonisation, particularly how the dehumanising portrayal of colonised people harms their identity.

Key Works

• Black Skin, White Masks (1952) - Explores the challenges faced by colonised individuals trying to assimilate into White culture, often at the cost of their own identity.
• A Dying Colonialism (1959)
• The Wretched of the Earth (1961) - Includes an introduction by philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre.
• Towards the African Revolution (1964)
• Alienation and Freedom (2018)

Nayar, Pramod K. (2009). Contemporary Literary and Cultural Theory: From Structuralism to Eroticism. Pearson.