Political Processes Chapter Notes | AP Human Geography - Grade 9 PDF Download

Introduction

This chapter notes explores the dynamic nature of political processes that have reshaped the world’s political map through time. It examines the forces of nationalism, imperialism, colonialism, and decolonization, alongside major events like the World Wars and the Cold War, which have driven changes in boundaries and state formations. The chapter also highlights how these processes continue to influence global geopolitics and cultural landscapes.

Political Processes

• Political maps have evolved significantly over time due to various factors, including shifts in political boundaries, the emergence of new nations, and alterations in the names or borders of existing countries.
• Historically, political boundaries have frequently changed due to wars, conquests, and other political conflicts. For instance, the borders of many European nations have undergone substantial changes over centuries as a result of wars and diplomatic agreements.
• The creation of new countries has also reshaped political boundaries. For example, the dissolution of the Soviet Union in the 1990s resulted in the formation of several independent nations in Eastern Europe and Central Asia.
• Beyond boundary changes, the names and borders of existing countries have also been modified. For instance, Ceylon was renamed Sri Lanka in 1972, and Burma became Myanmar in 1989.
• The political map has transformed dramatically, particularly over the last century. Comparing the political map of 1800 to today reveals the extent of these changes.
• The transition from historical to modern political maps was complex, driven by forces that either unify or fragment countries.
• The concept of nations establishing independent states is relatively recent. During the Enlightenment in the 1600s, nationalism emerged as a political and social ideology emphasizing a collective identity and the interests of a nation or people. 
• Nationalism promotes the right to self-determination and fosters national unity, pride, and culture, serving as a catalyst for independent nation-states. However, excessive nationalism can be harmful, leading to prolonged conflicts, as seen in the 19th and 20th centuries.

Colonialism & Imperialism

• Throughout history, imperialism has significantly altered the political map. Imperialism involves a country extending its influence over others through military force, economic pressure, or cultural dominance, often through colonization or annexation, exploiting resources and labor for the imperial power’s benefit. States pursue imperialism to gain access to raw materials and new markets for their goods.
• Colonialism is the practice of establishing and maintaining colonies in foreign territories, typically for economic exploitation, cultural assimilation, or political control. It involves settlers from the colonizing country imposing their culture, laws, and governance on the colonized region. European colonialism began in the 1500s and expanded rapidly, with much of the world under European control by the 19th century.
• Spain and Portugal initiated colonial empires in the 1500s in Central and South America, driven by the pursuit of “God, Glory, and Gold,” a phrase associated with the Age of Exploration, reflecting motivations of spreading Christianity, achieving prestige, and accumulating wealth. 
• England, France, and the Netherlands followed, colonizing parts of North America, with frequent conflicts among Europeans for dominance in the Americas through the 1800s.

Berlin Conference

• In the late 1800s, Germany, Belgium, Italy, and other European powers began colonizing Africa and Asia to compete with established colonial powers. 
• At the Berlin Conference of 1884–1885, European leaders, excluding African representatives, divided Africa among themselves, disregarding tribal and traditional boundaries and redrawing national borders arbitrarily.
• Images of Africa before and after the Berlin Conference show that only Ethiopia and Liberia remained independent post-conference. Prior to European arrival, native Africans had developed thriving empires, cultures, and societies over centuries, which were profoundly disrupted by European colonization.

World Wars

Both World War I and World War II significantly altered the global political map.

World War 1

• World War I, spanning 1914 to 1918, was a global conflict triggered by the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary, escalating into a large-scale war involving major world powers.
• The primary Allied powers included France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and, from 1917, the United States. The Central powers were Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire.
• World War I was marked by modern industrial and technological advancements, including machine guns, poison gas, tanks, and the first use of aircraft in warfare. It introduced new warfare tactics, such as trench warfare and total war, leading to high casualty rates.
• The war reshaped global politics, significantly altering the balance of power and political landscapes in Europe and beyond, setting the stage for World War II two decades later.
• After World War I, new states emerged from the defeated powers, including the Ottoman Empire, Austria-Hungary, and Germany. Rising nationalism also spurred independence movements, such as Ireland’s separation from the United Kingdom and the independence of Latvia, Estonia, and Lithuania from Russia.

World War 2

• World War II, from 1939 to 1945, was a global conflict initiated by Nazi Germany’s invasion of Poland, rapidly escalating to involve many major world powers.
• The main Allied powers were the United States, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and China, joined by other nations. The Axis powers included Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Imperial Japan.
• World War II was a total war, mobilizing entire societies and employing advanced technologies, including nuclear weapons, resulting in significant casualties.
• The war profoundly impacted global politics, reshaping power dynamics and political landscapes in Europe and beyond, paving the way for the Cold War, a period of prolonged political and military tension.
• During World War II, Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan’s rapid expansion altered the maps of Europe and Asia. After their defeat in 1945, their empires were dismantled or occupied. For example, Eastern European states transitioned from Nazi to Soviet control, remaining under Soviet influence until 1991.

The Cold War

• The Cold War (1945–1991) was a period of geopolitical tension between the United States and the Soviet Union, along with their allies, marked by ideological conflicts and competing global interests.
• The Cold War emerged from the rise of two superpowers post-World War II, the United States and the Soviet Union, each seeking to expand their ideology and influence globally. They engaged in proxy wars, arms races, and other competitions but avoided direct military conflict.
• The Cold War significantly shaped global politics and international relations for over four decades.
• The United States pursued economic imperialism in Latin America, incorporating former colonies like Hawaii and Alaska as states. Meanwhile, the Soviet Union expanded into Asia, prompting U.S. responses, leading to proxy wars in Korea, Vietnam, and Afghanistan, where superpowers supported opposing sides indirectly.

Decolonization

• The end of World War II marked the beginning of widespread decolonization, the process by which colonies gained independence and sovereignty. This involved the withdrawal of colonial powers and the transfer of political and economic control to the local population.
• Colonized states resisted occupation from the outset, but World War efforts delayed independence movements, as colonies were drawn into global conflicts through alliances. Australians, Indians, Brazilians, and Egyptians were among those involved.
• Post-World War II, independence movements resumed as European powers, weakened by the war, lacked resources to maintain control. Some nations, like France, resisted decolonization, but countries such as Vietnam, Indonesia, and Algeria successfully fought for independence.
• The British, devastated by the war, granted peaceful independence to India and Israel. However, both faced immediate conflicts—India was partitioned to create Pakistan, and Israel was attacked by neighboring countries.

Post-Cold War

• The collapse of the Soviet Union in the 1990s led to the emergence of 15 new independent countries in a single year. This transition was largely peaceful, as the Soviet Union was weakened by the costly Afghanistan war, which lasted a decade.
• Nationalism and imperialism have dramatically reshaped the political map over the past two centuries, and these forces continue to influence contemporary geopolitical issues. The political map is likely to evolve further as more regions pursue independence in the coming century.

Key Terms

• Alaska: Alaska, the largest U.S. state by area, is known for its vast wilderness and unique political status, influencing governance, resource management, and indigenous rights within its political processes.
• Allied Powers: The Allied Powers were coalitions of nations, including the United Kingdom, France, Russia, China, and the United States, that opposed the Central and Axis Powers in World War I and II, reshaping international relations and political landscapes.
• Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary: Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, was assassinated in 1914, triggering World War I and highlighting the interplay of nationalism, imperialism, and militarism in early 20th-century Europe.
• Arms Races: Arms races involve competitive military buildups between states to gain strategic advantages, escalating tensions and increasing conflict risks, driven by political processes and security concerns.
• Austria-Hungary: Austria-Hungary was a dual monarchy from 1867, with diverse ethnic groups and complex governance, dissolving after World War I due to nationalistic tensions.
• Berlin Conference: The Berlin Conference (1884–1885) was a meeting where European powers partitioned Africa, arbitrarily redrawing boundaries without regard for ethnic or cultural divisions, significantly altering the continent’s political landscape.
• Central Powers: The Central Powers, led by Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria during World War I, opposed the Allied Powers, influencing European political dynamics.
• Cold War: The Cold War (1945–1991) was a period of geopolitical tension between the U.S. and Soviet Union, characterized by ideological rivalry, proxy wars, and arms races, shaping global politics.
• Colonialism: Colonialism involves a country establishing control over foreign territories through settlement, resource extraction, and cultural imposition, reshaping global power dynamics and political boundaries.
• Conquests: Conquests are military actions to control territories or peoples, establishing new governance and altering political, social, and cultural landscapes in affected regions.
• Cultural Diffusion: Cultural diffusion is the spread of cultural beliefs, practices, and items across societies, influencing social dynamics and transforming cultural identities through interaction.
• Decolonization: Decolonization is the process by which colonies achieve independence, transitioning to self-governance and reshaping political, economic, and social structures post-colonial rule.
• Enlightenment: The Enlightenment was a 17th- and 18th-century European movement promoting reason, individualism, and skepticism, shaping modern political thought, democracy, and human rights.
• Estonia: Estonia, a Baltic nation, gained independence from the Soviet Union in 1991, developing a strong democratic system, reflecting significant political transitions and nation-building.
• Fascist Italy: Fascist Italy, under Benito Mussolini from 1922 to 1943, was an authoritarian regime promoting nationalism and militarism, aiming for a totalitarian state with a unified Italian identity.
• Germany: Germany, a Central European nation, is a major economic power in the European Union, influencing global politics, economics, and social issues through its political processes.
• "God, Glory, Gold": “God, Glory, Gold” encapsulates the motivations of European exploration and colonization—spreading Christianity, seeking prestige, and pursuing wealth—shaping global political relationships.
• Hawaii: Hawaii, a Pacific archipelago, transitioned from a monarchy to a U.S. state in 1959, reflecting themes of colonization, annexation, and evolving political identity.
• Imperialism: Imperialism is a policy of extending a country’s power through colonization or military force, reshaping political relationships, economic systems, and cultural landscapes globally.
• Imperial Japan: Imperial Japan (1868–1945) modernized rapidly, becoming a major power through militarization and expansionism, influencing East Asian political and cultural dynamics.
• Independence Movements: Independence movements are efforts by groups to achieve political autonomy, often in response to colonial or oppressive rule, reshaping power structures through resistance.
• Indonesia: Indonesia, the largest archipelagic state, is culturally diverse with a complex democratic system influenced by its colonial history and ethnic diversity, shaping regional politics.
• Ireland: Ireland, divided into the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland, reflects historical themes of nationalism, colonialism, and identity within European political processes.
• Latvia: Latvia, a Baltic state, has a complex history of independence and occupation, reflecting nation-building and sovereignty struggles within European political dynamics.
• Lithuania: Lithuania, a Baltic nation, transitioned from Soviet control to EU and NATO membership, highlighting its role in modern political processes and regional integration.
• Materials and Markets: Materials and Markets describe the relationship between raw materials and markets for goods, influencing economic activities, trade, and political decision-making.
• Nationalism: Nationalism is a political ideology emphasizing a nation’s collective identity and self-governance, uniting people but potentially causing conflicts with other nations.
• Nazi Germany: Nazi Germany (1933–1945), led by Adolf Hitler, was a totalitarian regime with aggressive expansionist policies, reshaping European political landscapes and causing widespread devastation.
• Ottoman Empire: The Ottoman Empire, spanning the 13th to early 20th centuries, was a major Islamic state influencing Southeastern Europe, Western Asia, and North Africa through its political and cultural systems.
• Pakistan: Pakistan, established in 1947 from British India’s partition, is a key South Asian player with political processes shaped by its history, geography, and cultural diversity.
• Political Conflict: Political conflict involves disputes over governance, resources, or power, manifesting as protests, violence, or diplomacy, influencing political and social dynamics.
• Political Processes: Political processes encompass activities like government formation, elections, and policy-making, influenced by geographic, social, and economic factors shaping power distribution.
• Political Boundaries: Political boundaries are lines separating political entities, defining governance, sovereignty, and resource distribution, influencing social and economic interactions.
• Post-Cold War: The Post-Cold War era, following the Soviet Union’s collapse in 1991, saw a shift to a multipolar world, influencing international relations and new political processes.
• Proxy Wars: Proxy wars are conflicts where major powers support third-party combatants to advance their interests, prolonging conflicts and complicating political and social outcomes.
• Russia: Russia, the world’s largest country, spans Eastern Europe and Northern Asia, significantly influencing global politics and economics through its complex political structure.
• Soviet Union: The Soviet Union (1922–1991) was a socialist state influencing 20th-century global politics, demographics, and development through its political processes and devolution.
• Superpowers: Superpowers are nations with global military and economic influence, shaping international affairs and stability through advanced technology and resources.
• Supranationalism: Supranationalism involves nations collaborating beyond national boundaries, ceding some sovereignty for shared goals in trade, security, or environmental policies.
• Total War: Total war mobilizes a society’s entire resources for conflict, blurring lines between combatants and civilians, causing significant destruction and reshaping societies.
• Trench Warfare: Trench warfare, prominent in World War I, involves soldiers fighting from protective trenches, shaping battlefields and reflecting brutal wartime conditions.
• United Kingdom: The United Kingdom, comprising England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland, is a constitutional monarchy influencing political processes and agricultural innovations.
• Vietnam: Vietnam, a Southeast Asian nation, transformed through the Vietnam War and reunification, with a socialist political system influencing regional and global relations.
• Wars: Wars are large-scale armed conflicts driven by political, economic, or social factors, reshaping boundaries, governance, and international relations.
• World War I: World War I (1914–1918) was a global conflict reshaping political boundaries and social structures, leading to new nations and setting the stage for future conflicts.
• World War II: World War II (1939–1945) involved the Allies and Axis powers, profoundly reshaping political boundaries, populations, and cultural landscapes worldwide.