Context of 20th Century Global Conflicts Chapter Notes | AP European History - Grade 9 PDF Download

Introduction

The early 20th century was defined by global conflicts rooted in nationalism, imperialism, and industrial advancements, culminating in two world wars. This chapter notes traces the breakdown of European stability, the rise of authoritarian ideologies, and the devastating impacts of total war. It examines how these events reshaped political, social, and cultural landscapes, setting the stage for the Cold War and modern international relations.

Contextualizing the Unit

• The early 20th century was marked by profound global conflicts, originating from the collapse of the Concert of Europe and escalating tensions among European powers. 
• Late 19th-century territorial rivalries over imperialist ambitions fueled nationalist movements and competition for dominance, which intensified and contributed to the outbreak of World War I, the deadliest conflict of its time.
• Several factors drove the growing conflicts leading to the wars:
  • Nationalism: A surge in national identity fractured empires, as separatist movements gained momentum.
  • Industrialization: The Industrial Revolution sparked an arms race, with nations amassing large military arsenals, heightening tensions.
  • Alliance Systems: Military alliances, such as the Triple Entente and Triple Alliance, ensured that a dispute between two nations could rapidly escalate into a global war.
• The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand served as the spark for World War I, but its deeper causes lay in these complex factors. The war initially pitted the Triple Entente (France, Russia, Britain) against the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy). 
• Following the Russian Revolution and Russia’s withdrawal, the United States joined the conflict, bolstering the Entente with fresh troops and supplies, which was pivotal in ending the war in 1918.

The Aftermath of World War I

• After the war, the Paris Peace Conference convened victorious powers to negotiate a peace agreement. The Treaty of Versailles, signed in 1919, imposed harsh penalties on Germany, including significant reparations and territorial losses. 
• It also created the League of Nations to prevent future global conflicts. However, the treaty’s punitive measures left Germany humiliated and economically weakened, fostering resentment that fueled future tensions.
• The war’s economic instability, combined with unresolved political issues, paved the way for authoritarian regimes in Europe, led by figures like Benito Mussolini in Italy, Adolf Hitler in Germany, and Francisco Franco in Spain, who capitalized on economic distress and national discontent to seize power.

The Interwar Period and the Rise of Fascism

During the interwar years, fascism emerged as an extreme nationalist ideology that rejected democracy and aimed to establish totalitarian regimes. Leaders like Mussolini in Italy and Hitler in Germany exploited economic hardship and national humiliation to gain support and dismantle democratic institutions.

• Fascist Ideologies: Fascism promoted aggressive nationalism, military expansion, and the suppression of opposition. In Germany, Hitler’s Nazi Party emphasized racial purity, asserting “Aryan” superiority and using anti-Semitic propaganda to justify persecution of Jews and other minorities.
• Appeasement: Britain and France initially pursued appeasement, conceding to some of Hitler’s territorial demands to avoid war. This policy emboldened Nazi Germany, contributing to the outbreak of World War II.

World War II and Its Causes

World War II began in 1939 with Germany’s invasion of Poland, driven by unresolved issues from the Treaty of Versailles, the rise of fascism, and the League of Nations’ failure. The conflict spread globally, with profound consequences for Europe and its colonies.

• The Holocaust: Nazi Germany’s systematic genocide, the Holocaust, resulted in the murder of six million Jews and millions of others, including Roma, disabled individuals, and political dissidents.
• Allied Victory: The war concluded in 1945 after the Allied D-Day invasion of Normandy in 1944 and Germany’s surrender. In the Pacific, the U.S. dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, prompting Japan’s surrender.

Post-War Europe: The Cold War Begins

• After World War II, Europe faced economic and political devastation. The United Nations, formed in 1945, aimed to prevent future conflicts and foster global cooperation, though the League of Nations’ earlier failure highlighted the challenges of sustaining peace.
• The post-war era saw Europe divided into spheres of influence, with the Soviet Union dominating Eastern Europe and the U.S. and its allies controlling the West. 
• This division marked the onset of the Cold War, a period of ideological and military tension between the capitalist West, led by the U.S., and the communist East, led by the USSR.

Main Events of the Early 20th Century

• 1914: World War I begins.
• 1917: Russian Revolution leads to Bolshevik takeover.
• 1917: U.S. enters World War I.
• 1919: Paris Peace Conference and Treaty of Versailles signed.
• 1922: Mussolini rises to power in Italy.
• 1927: Stalin assumes power in the Soviet Union.
• 1929: Great Depression starts.
• 1933: Hitler becomes Chancellor of Germany.
• 1935: Nuremberg Laws enacted in Germany.
• 1939: Germany and Soviet Union invade Poland, initiating World War II.
• 1941: Japan attacks Pearl Harbor, prompting U.S. entry into World War II.
• 1944: D-Day invasion of Normandy.
• 1945: Atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, ending World War II.

Impact of War and Ideological Shifts

Demographic and Social Changes

• Mass Displacement: The wars caused significant population shifts, with millions displaced due to military occupations, ethnic cleansing, and the Holocaust.
• Economic Impact: Many European nations faced economic collapse, while the U.S. emerged as a global economic leader. The Marshall Plan aided Europe’s reconstruction.
• Social Changes: World War II disrupted traditional social structures, altering family dynamics and increasing women’s workforce participation during the war.

Cultural Shifts and Intellectual Movements

• The wars’ horrors, particularly the Holocaust, led intellectuals to question reason and scientific progress, giving rise to movements like existentialism and postmodernism, which challenged the notion that rationality could ensure moral or political advancement.
• The wars also spurred scientific and technological progress, notably in medicine and nuclear technology, offering benefits but raising ethical concerns about their destructive potential.

The Destruction of Total War and Political Polarization

The devastation of total war in the early 20th century created conditions for polarized political ideologies—communism, fascism, and democracy—each proposing solutions to war, economic collapse, and political instability.

Communism

• Post-WWI Economic Disruption: World War I’s social and economic upheaval, followed by the Great Depression, eroded trust in traditional political and capitalist systems. In Russia, the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution established the Soviet Union under Lenin and later Stalin, offering a Marxist-Leninist alternative to capitalism and monarchy.
• Appeal of Communism: Promises of equality, workers’ rights, and the abolition of class hierarchies appealed to populations in war-torn, economically distressed societies. By the 1930s, communist movements gained support in Spain, France, and Italy, though they faced opposition from conservative and liberal groups.

Fascism

• Reaction to Communist Movements: Fascism emerged as a radical counter to communism in countries where it gained traction. Leaders like Mussolini in Italy and Hitler in Germany established authoritarian, nationalist regimes rejecting democracy and communism.
• Nationalism and Militarization of Society: Fascism prioritized national unity, pride, and strong centralized authority, exploiting economic instability, political chaos, and fear of communism. In Germany, Hitler leveraged resentment over the Treaty of Versailles to rally support for the Nazi Party.
• Suppression of Dissent: Fascist regimes used propaganda, mass mobilization, and state violence to eliminate opposition, consolidating power and rebuilding military strength at the cost of individual freedoms.

Democracy

• A Struggling Institution: Total war and economic crises undermined traditional governance in some nations, but democracy persisted in Britain, France, and the U.S. Political instability, worsened by the Great Depression and radical ideologies, polarized politics as conservatives and liberals grappled with modernization, inequality, and war’s aftermath.
• Challenges to Democracy: Communism and fascism posed direct threats to liberal democracies. Some nations, like Italy, Spain, and Germany, succumbed to authoritarianism, while others, like France and Britain, faced political fragmentation. Democracy’s survival laid the foundation for post-WWII recovery and institutions like the United Nations and European Union.

The Role of Total War in Fostering Political Extremes

• World War I and Its Aftermath: The immense destruction of World War I, including millions of deaths, economic hardship, and the collapse of empires (Ottoman, Austro-Hungarian, Russian), created power vacuums. Traditional political systems’ failure to stabilize these regions fueled extremist ideologies, with communism promising social revolution and fascism offering national renewal.
• World War II and Further Polarization: World War II deepened ideological divides, with fascist and communist states clashing. Post-war, the U.S.-led liberal democracies and Soviet-led communism defined the Cold War, splitting the world into ideological blocs.

The destructive legacy of total war shaped political developments and exposed the fragility of the international order. The ideologies of communism, fascism, and democracy continued to influence global politics, shaping the Cold War and beyond.

Conclusion

The 20th century was defined by immense suffering from two world wars, but also by transformative change. Ideological struggles, new political movements, and technological advancements reshaped Europe and the world. Despite devastation, these events fostered international cooperation through organizations like the United Nations and European Union, influencing modern Europe’s global role.

Key Terms

• Adolf Hitler Becomes German Chancellor: On January 30, 1933, Adolf Hitler was appointed Germany’s Chancellor, initiating the Nazi Party’s transformation of Germany into a totalitarian state, pivotal to 20th-century global conflicts.
• Adolf Hitler: Leader of the Nazi Party and Germany’s Chancellor from 1933, Hitler’s fascist policies and aggressive expansionism triggered World War II, reshaping global politics.
• Allied Invasions: Military operations by Allied forces in World War II, including D-Day and the Italian Campaign, aimed to liberate occupied territories, shifting the war’s momentum.
• Arms Race: Competition among nations to build superior military arsenals, driven by fear and the pursuit of dominance, shaping 20th-century conflicts and diplomacy.
• Atomic Weapons: Nuclear weapons, developed during World War II, derive destructive power from nuclear reactions, influencing military strategies and geopolitics.
• Atomic Bombs Dropped in Japan, WWII Ends: The U.S. dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945, leading to Japan’s surrender and the end of World War II, ushering in the nuclear era.
• Authoritarian Dictators: Leaders wielding absolute power through oppression, censorship, and force, prominent in 20th-century crises, exploiting instability to consolidate control.
• Benito Mussolini Comes to Power in Italy: In 1922, Mussolini became Italy’s Prime Minister, founding a fascist regime that marked a shift toward authoritarianism in Europe.
• Benito Mussolini: Italy’s dictator from 1922 to 1943, Mussolini’s fascist regime promoted nationalism and totalitarianism, influencing Europe’s interwar politics.
• Battle of Stalingrad: A 1942–1943 World War II battle where the Soviet Union repelled German forces, marking a turning point on the Eastern Front.
• Concert of Europe: A post-Napoleonic system of cooperation among European powers to maintain stability, weakened by nationalism and imperialism, contributing to 20th-century conflicts.
• D-Day Invasion: The June 6, 1944, Allied invasion of Normandy, a critical World War II operation that led to the liberation of Western Europe from Nazi control.
• Economic Collapse: Severe economic downturns, like the Great Depression, causing unemployment and poverty, with significant social and political repercussions.
• European Demographics: Population characteristics in Europe, including size, migration, and age distribution, shaping 20th-century social and political dynamics.
• Francisco Franco: Spain’s dictator from 1939 to 1975, whose fascist regime emerged from the Spanish Civil War, enforcing repressive policies.
• Franklin Roosevelt Is Elected US President: Elected in 1932, Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal addressed the Great Depression, shaping U.S. responses to global conflicts.
• Germany and Soviet Union Invade Poland, WWII Begins: The 1939 invasion of Poland by Germany and the Soviet Union triggered World War II, escalating global conflict.
• Great Depression: A global economic crisis from 1929 to the late 1930s, causing widespread poverty and reshaping political and economic landscapes.
• Holocaust: Nazi Germany’s systematic genocide during World War II, killing six million Jews and millions of others, a stark symbol of totalitarian atrocities.
• Imperialist Goals: Nations’ objectives to expand influence through colonization, driven by economic and political motives, shaping 20th-century conflicts.
• Industrial Revolution: A late 18th-century transformation in industry and technology, reshaping economies and societies, contributing to 20th-century militarization.
• Japanese Attack Pearl Harbor, US Joins WWII: Japan’s 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor prompted U.S. entry into World War II, altering the conflict’s course.
• Japanese Surrender: Japan’s formal surrender on September 2, 1945, ended World War II, initiating major political and social changes in the Asia-Pacific.
• Joseph Stalin Comes to Power in the Soviet Union: Stalin’s rise in the late 1920s established a totalitarian regime, shaping 20th-century global politics.
• Main Events: Key occurrences shaping 20th-century conflicts, influencing international relations, ideologies, and social dynamics.
• Nationalism: A political ideology emphasizing national identity and sovereignty, driving 20th-century conflicts and separatist movements.
• Nuremberg Laws Passed in Germany: Anti-Semitic laws enacted in 1935, institutionalizing racial discrimination and paving the way for the Holocaust.
• Outbreak of WWI: World War I began in July 1914, triggered by Archduke Franz Ferdinand’s assassination, fueled by nationalism and alliances.
• Paris Peace Conference, End of WWI: The 1919 conference negotiated post-World War I settlements, including the Treaty of Versailles, shaping future tensions.
• Police State: A government using police to suppress dissent and control citizens, common in 20th-century authoritarian regimes.
• Russian Revolution: The 1917 upheavals in Russia overthrew the Tsar, establishing a communist state, influencing global politics.
• Social Patterns: Recurring societal behaviors and structures shaping 20th-century conflicts and community responses to war.
• Spanish Civil War Ends, Francisco Franco Becomes Dictator: The 1939 end of the Spanish Civil War established Franco’s fascist dictatorship, impacting European politics.
• Standard of Living: The level of wealth and necessities available, reflecting economic and social well-being during 20th-century conflicts.
• Triple Entente: An early 20th-century alliance of France, Russia, and Britain, countering the Triple Alliance, escalating World War I tensions.
• Triple Alliance: An 1882 alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy, shaping pre-World War I European power dynamics.
• Treaty of Versailles: The 1919 treaty ending World War I, imposing harsh terms on Germany, contributing to future conflicts.
• United States Military: The U.S. armed forces, pivotal in 20th-century conflicts through combat and peacekeeping roles.
• United Nations (UN): Founded in 1945, the UN promotes peace and cooperation, addressing 20th-century conflict legacies.
• US Joins WWI: The U.S. entered World War I in 1917, providing critical support to the Allies, shifting the war’s outcome.
• US Stock Market Crash: The 1929 stock market crash initiated the Great Depression, causing global economic turmoil.
• Winston Churchill Is Re-appointed Prime Minister of Great Britain: Churchill’s 1951 return as Prime Minister addressed post-war challenges, including the Cold War.
• World War II (WWII): A 1939–1945 global conflict involving widespread atrocities and reshaping global power dynamics.