Operant Conditioning Chapter Notes | AP Psychology - Grade 11 PDF Download

The Law of Effect

The Law of Effect suggests that behaviors followed by positive outcomes are more likely to be repeated, while those followed by negative outcomes are less likely to recur. This principle drives operant conditioning.
Key points:

• Behaviors paired with rewards increase in frequency.
• Behaviors paired with punishments decrease in frequency.
• Immediate feedback strengthens the behavior-consequence link.
• Consistency and timing enhance the association’s strength.

Types of Reinforcement and Punishment

Reinforcement and punishment shape behavior by adding (positive) or removing (negative) stimuli. Here, “positive” and “negative” refer to adding (+1) or subtracting (-1), not whether the outcome is good or bad.

Reinforcement (Increases Behavior):

• Positive Reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus to encourage a behavior.
  • Example: A student receives praise for completing homework, increasing future effort.
• Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus to encourage a behavior.
  • Example: Turning off a loud alarm by fastening a seatbelt promotes buckling up.

Punishment (Decreases Behavior):

• Positive Punishment: Adding an unpleasant stimulus to discourage a behavior.
  • Example: A child gets a time-out for misbehaving, reducing future disruptions.
• Negative Punishment: Removing a pleasant stimulus to discourage a behavior.
  • Example: A teen loses gaming privileges for breaking rules, encouraging compliance.

Effectiveness depends on:

• Timing of delivery.
• Consistency of application.
• The individual’s value for the reinforcer or punisher.

Shaping Behavior Through Reinforcement

Shaping involves reinforcing gradual steps toward a target behavior, ideal for teaching complex or non-instinctive actions. It’s widely used in animal training, skill-building in children, and therapeutic habit formation.

Process:

• Define the target behavior (e.g., a dog rolling over).
• Break it into smaller steps (e.g., lying down, turning head, rolling halfway).
• Reinforce each step with rewards like treats or praise.
• Gradually require closer approximations to the final behavior.

Limits of Shaping:

• The behavior must be physically possible for the individual or animal.
• Instinctive drift may occur, where natural instincts override training (e.g., a trained raccoon reverts to rubbing coins instead of depositing them, mimicking food-washing behavior).

Superstitious Behavior vs. Learned Helplessness

These concepts highlight how operant conditioning can misfire, leading to unintended behavioral patterns.
Superstitious Behavior: Occurs when an action is mistakenly linked to an unrelated outcome due to coincidental reinforcement.

• Example: A dancer wears the same bracelet after a great performance, believing it brings luck, though it has no causal effect.
• Persists despite no true cause-and-effect relationship.

Learned Helplessness: Develops when repeated uncontrollable negative outcomes lead individuals to stop trying, even when change is possible.

• Example: A student fails exams despite effort, eventually giving up studying, even with access to better resources.
• Persists due to a belief that outcomes are uncontrollable.

Key Differences:

• Superstitious behavior stems from false beliefs in control; learned helplessness from perceived lack of control.
• Superstitions lead to repetitive actions; learned helplessness leads to inaction.
• Superstitious behavior arises from random positive outcomes; learned helplessness from repeated negative ones.

Reinforcement Schedules

Reinforcement schedules determine when and how often rewards are given, affecting how behaviors are learned and sustained.

• Continuous Reinforcement: Rewards every instance of a behavior, ideal for quick learning.
  • Example: A cat gets a treat every time it uses the litter box.
  • Downside: Behavior fades quickly if rewards stop (extinction).
• Partial Reinforcement: Rewards only some instances, making behaviors more resistant to extinction. Four types exist, split into interval (time-based) and ratio (response-based) schedules.

Interval-Based Schedules (Time-Based)

• Fixed-Interval: Rewards after a set time period.
  • Example: A teacher gives a quiz every Friday, prompting studying as the day nears.
• Variable-Interval: Rewards after unpredictable time periods.
  • Example: Random pop quizzes encourage consistent studying.

Ratio-Based Schedules (Reinforcement Based on Responses)

• Fixed-Ratio: Rewards after a set number of responses.
  • Example: A loyalty program offers a free item after 10 purchases.
• Variable-Ratio: Rewards after a random number of responses.
  • Example: Gambling machines pay out unpredictably, encouraging persistent play.

Which Schedule is Best?

• Continuous reinforcement excels for initial learning.
• Partial reinforcement sustains behaviors longer.
• Variable-ratio schedules produce the most persistent behaviors due to their unpredictability.