Kings and Kingdoms of the Early Medieval Period Chapter Notes | History Class 7 ICSE PDF Download

Introduction

Dantidurga

• Dantidurga, also called Dantivarman, ruled from 735 to 756 CE.
• He founded the Rashtrakuta kingdom and set up his capital in the Gulbarga region of Karnataka.
• Evidence from Ellora shows he battled the Chalukyas in 753 CE.
• After defeating the Chalukyas, he took titles like Parameshvara and Rajadhiraja.
• He was the son of Indra II, according to historical writings.
• Samangad writings state he defeated Karnataka Bala of the Badami Chalukyas and other central Indian rulers.
• Despite his victory, the Vakkaleri inscription notes Chalukya King Kirtivarman II kept control over southern provinces until 757 CE.

The Rajputs

• The term "Rajput" comes from the Sanskrit word "rajputra," meaning "son of a king."
• Rajputs were warriors who claimed to be of the Kshatriya caste.
• They were spread across north and north-western India.
• Some Rajputs claimed to be Suryavanshi, or descendants of the Sun.
• Others claimed to be Chandravanshi, or descendants of the Moon.
• Some clans said they came from a sacred fire, belonging to the Agnikula (Fire family).
• The origin of Rajputs is unclear, possibly linked to Central Asian tribes like Shakas, Kushanas, Huns, and Gurjars.
• These tribes mixed with local communities through marriage.
• After Harshavardhana’s death and Magadha’s decline, the Gurjara Pratiharas, a Rajput clan, rose in north India.
• Other Rajput clans like Tomars, Chauhans, Chandelas, Gahadavalas, Paramaras, and Solankis built their own kingdoms.

The Palas

• The Palas were a strong dynasty in eastern India.
• Gopala founded the Pala kingdom, likely elected by the people.
• His son Dharmapala took control of Kanauj for some time.
• The kingdom covered present-day Bihar and Bengal.
• Devapala, Gopala’s grandson, expanded it to Assam, Odisha, and parts of Nepal.
• The Palas supported Buddhism.
• Dharmapala founded the famous Vikramshila University.

The Gurjara Pratiharas

• The Gurjara Pratiharas ruled western India and parts of the upper Gangetic valley.
• Harichandra started this empire.
• They gained power by defending the north from invasions between 712 and 1000 CE.
• Nagabhata I strengthened the kingdom by capturing Malwa and Baruch.
• Mihir Bhoja (836-890 CE) was the most famous ruler.
• He took Kanauj and made it his capital.
• His empire grew to include Punjab, Awadh, Malwa, and Gujarat.
• His son Mahendrapala added Magadha and north Bengal to the empire.
• The dynasty weakened in the 10th century due to Mahmud of Ghazni’s invasions.

The Rashtrakutas

• The Rashtrakutas were a key dynasty in the Deccan region.
• They began as samantas under the Chalukyas.
• Dantidurga declared independence after overthrowing his Chalukyan overlord.
• He performed the hiranya-garbha ritual, symbolizing rebirth as a Kshatriya.
• Notable rulers include Govinda III (793-814 CE), Amoghavarsha (814-878 CE), and Krishna III (934-963 CE).
• They fought the Palas and Gurjara Pratiharas in the north for Kanauj.
• In the south, they clashed with the Pallavas of Kanchipuram.
• They promoted the Kannada language.
• Amoghavarsha wrote poetry in Kannada.
• They built the Kailasanatha temple at Ellora and the Elephanta caves near Mumbai.

Tripartite Struggle

• The Palas, Gurjara Pratiharas, and Rashtrakutas fought for control of Kanauj.
• This conflict is called the Tripartite Struggle because it involved three parties.
• Kanauj was a key city in the upper Gangetic valley.
• Controlling Kanauj gave access to the rich resources and fertile land of the Ganga valley.
• Since Harshavardhana’s time, Kanauj symbolized supremacy.
• Each dynasty wanted to dominate it.
• The struggle lasted about two centuries and weakened all three kingdoms.

Administration of the Regional Kingdoms (700-1200)

• These new kingdoms were marked by the rise of the samantas, the warrior chiefs in different regions of the subcontinent.
• They were feudatory rulers, subordinate to the king and were expected to provide military support during times of war.
• The king granted the samantas lands from which they could collect taxes.
• They were expected to maintain their household and armies with the taxes they collected.
• The kings also gave land grants to the Brahmins who did not have to pay taxes on these lands.
• Some of the samantas or mandalikas became very powerful and found independent kingdoms for themselves like Dantidurga.
• They also adopted grander titles like maha-samanta and mahamandaleshwara (the great lord of a circle or region).
• The king’s position remained powerful.
• His prestige depended on his success in wars and the size of his kingdom.
• Usually the king was succeeded by the eldest son, but there were cases of coups organized by other family members.
•  The kings often displayed their status or power by adopting very high sounding titles such as maharajadhiraja (king of kings) and tribhuvana chakravartin (lord of the three worlds).
• The sources of such information are the prashastis.
• The prashastis contain details of the lives of the rulers and their forefathers.
• Some information in these prashastis may not be actually true because they were written in the way the rulers wanted to depict themselves.
• Prashastis almost always praised the actions of the rulers.
• They were written usually by Brahmins who were given land grants as rewards. 
• Rajatarangini (river of kings) is a historical chronicle of early India, written in Sanskrit verse by the Kashmiri Brahmin Kalhana in 1148.
• It is often critical about the Kashmiri rulers and their policies.
  It covers the entire span of history in the Kashmir region from the earliest times to the date of its composition.

Economy

• Taxes were the main revenue for kings.
• Revenue funded palaces, temples, military campaigns, and welfare activities.
• Kings also gained resources by plundering during wars.
• Wars aimed to access resources beyond their territories.
• Temples showed the king’s power, wealth, and status.
• Kings looted each other’s temples to gain wealth and prove supremacy.
• Temples’ wealth attracted foreign invaders like Mahmud of Ghazni.

Mahmud of Ghazni

• Sultan Mahmud ruled Ghazni (now in Afghanistan) from 997 to 1030 CE.
• He did not aim to build an empire in India but needed resources for his Central Asian kingdom.
• Between 1000 and 1027 CE, he invaded India 17 times.
• He targeted rich towns and temples like Mathura, Kanauj, Thaneswar, Nagarkot, and Somnath.
• He took temple wealth and destroyed many of them.
• He brought learned men and skilled artisans to Ghazni.
• He used the wealth and skills to build palaces, mosques, and colleges in Ghazni.
• Famous scholars in his court were Al Beruni and Firdausi.
• Firdausi wrote the Shahnama, a history of Persia, initially praising Mahmud but later turning it into a satire.
• Mahmud died in 1030 CE, and his empire fell soon after.
• His raids showed Turks the route to enter India from the northwest.
• 150 years later, Turkish invasions continued under Muhammad Ghori.
• Persian geographer Zakariya al-Qazwini described the Somnath temple’s destruction in his book.

Muhammad of Ghor

• Sultan Shahbuddin Muhammad Ghori ruled Ghor, in present-day Afghanistan, from 1173 CE.
• He aimed to build a large empire in north India.
• He conquered Multan and Uchch in Punjab.
• He clashed with Prithviraj III (Prithviraj Chauhan), ruler of Delhi and Ajmer.

Battles of Tarain

• Two battles were fought at Tarain between Prithviraj Chauhan and Muhammad Ghori.
• In the first battle (1191 CE), Prithviraj Chauhan won.
• In the second battle (1192 CE), Muhammad Ghori won.

Reasons for Prithviraj’s Defeat

• Reasons for Prithviraj’s defeat include lack of support from Raja Jaichandra of Kanauj.
• Indian rulers lacked advanced war tools like iron stirrups and long-range bows.
• Samantas from different regions did not coordinate well.
• The Turks had a well-organized army and fast cavalry.
• Turkish horses were quicker than Indian elephants.
• Muhammad Ghori’s win started Turkish rule and the Slave Dynasty in India.
• It also marked the beginning of the Delhi Sultanate.

The Chola Kingdom

Chola Administration

• The Cholas ruled from Uraiyur in Tamil Nadu.
• They had a strong system of local self-government.
• The empire was split into mandalams, then into valanadu and nadu.
• A nadu was a group of villages; a valanadu was a group of nadus.
• Villages had two assemblies: the ur (all landowners) and the sabha (Brahmins).
• Uttaramerur inscriptions from Chingleput, Tamil Nadu, describe how representatives were chosen.
• Villages were divided into 30 wards.
• People wrote candidate names on palm leaves, placed in a pot.
• A young boy picked tickets to select committee members.
• Committees handled land measurement, tax collection, water tanks, roads, temples, and disputes.
• Vellala caste peasants had significant power in village administration.
• Chola kings gave them titles and key central offices.

According to the Uttaramerur inscription, the required criteria to become the members of a village council were:

• They should have their own land on which they paid taxes. 
• They should have their own houses. 
• They should be well versed in the Vedas. 
• They should be between 35-70 years of age. 
• They should be honest and well versed in administrative matters. 
• Those who have been in a committee for the past 3 years could not become members.

Grants and Payments

• Chola rulers gave land to officers, Brahmins, temples, and religious institutions.
• Brahmadeya was tax-free land given to Brahmins, managed by a sabha.
• Temples were major landowners during the Chola period.
• Devadana was land gifted to temples, often entire villages.
• Pallichchandam was land donated to Jain institutions.
• Vellanvagai was land given to non-Brahmins, like Vellala caste members.
• Shalabhoga was land for maintaining schools.

Culture

• The Chola rulers built a large number of temples.
• Rajaraja and Rajendra Chola’s temples are great examples of architecture.
• The period excelled in bronze images of gods and goddesses.
• The Nataraja sculpture is a fine example of Indian craftsmanship.
• Temples were centers of social, economic, and cultural life.
• They employed artists, craftsmen, sculptors, priests, musicians, dancers, and others.
• Temples stood on tax-free land.
• Priests used land revenue to maintain temples and pay workers.
• Carnatic music and Bharatanatyam dance began in south Indian temples.
• Devadasis, or temple dancers, learned and performed there.
• Schools and hospitals grew around temples.
• People held meetings at temples, making them community hubs.

Chola Inscriptions

• Inscriptions provide much information about the Cholas.
• Copper plates with royal seals recorded grants of land, ornaments, or cattle.
• They included the ruler’s genealogy and praise for gods and goddesses.
• Temple wall inscriptions noted village assembly functions, crafts, trade guilds, and royal gifts.
• Brihadeeswara temple inscriptions list Rajaraja’s conquests, titles, and gifts to the temple.

Case Study: The Cholas

• In ancient times, the Cholas from Uraiyur, Tamil Nadu, were a key clan.
• Their power declined with the rise of the Pallavas and Chalukyas.
• In the 9th century, Vijayalaya of the Chola family took the Kaveri delta from the Mutharaiyars.
• He made Thanjavur his capital and re-established Chola rule.
• His successors expanded the empire.
• The Cholas ruled much of south India for nearly four centuries (9th-12th century).
• Rajaraja I and Rajendra Chola were key rulers who expanded and strengthened the empire.

Rajaraja I (985-1014)

• Rajaraja I became king in 985 CE.
• He defeated the Pandyas, Chalukyas, and Cheras to gain territory.
• His strong navy conquered parts of northern Sri Lanka and the Maldives.
• He built the Brihadeeswara (Raja Rajeswara) temple in Thanjavur in 1010 CE.

Rajendra Chola (1014-1044)

• Rajendra Chola, son of Rajaraja I, took the throne in 1014 CE.
• He completed the conquest of Sri Lanka started by his father.
• He defeated Mahipala of Bengal after crossing the Ganga.
• He took the title Gangaikonda, meaning Conqueror of the Ganga.
• He founded a new capital, Gangaikondacholapuram, near Thanjavur.
• His navy defeated the Srivijaya Empire (Malaya, Sumatra, Java).
• This victory restored Chola trade with southeast Asia and China through the Malacca Straits.

Economy

• Cholas collected taxes on land, trade, and professions.
• Taxes applied to activities like thatching houses, using ladders for palm trees, and property transfers.
• Kadamai was a land tax.
• Vetti was a tax collected as forced labor, not cash.

Agrarian Expansion

• Chola rule increased land for farming.
• Forests were cleared, and dry barren land was irrigated.
• Embankments prevented flooding.
• Canals brought water to fields.
• Wells and dams were built.
• Huge tanks stored rainwater.
• A committee maintained irrigation facilities.
• These efforts boosted land revenue.

Point to Remember

• Rajputs were warriors claiming Kshatriya status.
• Key dynasties included Palas, Gurjara Pratiharas, Rashtrakutas, and Cholas.
• Gopala founded the Palas in eastern India.
• Harichandra started the Gurjara Pratiharas in western India and the upper Gangetic valley.
• Dantidurga established the Rashtrakutas in the Deccan.
• These three dynasties fought in the Tripartite Struggle for Kanauj.
• Samantas were warrior chiefs aiding kings in wars.
• Kings plundered temples to gain wealth and show power.
• Mahmud of Ghazni ruled from 997 to 1030 CE and raided India 17 times between 1000 and 1027 CE.
• Two Battles of Tarain were fought between Muhammad Ghori and Prithviraj Chauhan.
• Prithviraj’s defeat in the second battle began Turkish rule and the Delhi Sultanate.
• Vijayalaya re-established Chola rule in medieval India.
• Rajaraja Chola built the Brihadeeswara temple in Thanjavur in 1010 CE.
• The Chola empire had mandalams, valanadu, and nadu divisions.
• Villages had two assemblies: the ur and the sabha.
• Cholas taxed various activities, including kadamai (land) and vetti (labor).
• Land was granted to officers, Brahmins, temples, and religious institutions.
• The Chola period was known for excellent bronze images.
• Copper plates and temple inscriptions give insights into Chola history.