The Delhi Sultanate Chapter Notes | History Class 7 ICSE PDF Download

Introduction

Sources of Information

• Archaeological sources include coins, inscriptions, and monuments from the Sultanate period.
• Literary sources consist of writings by foreign travelers and court historians.
• Court historians wrote in Persian, the official language, producing accounts called tarikhs.
• These tarikhs often flattered the sultans, so they may not always be accurate.
• Key works include Tabaqat-i-Nasiri by Minhaj-i-Siraj, Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi by Ziauddin Barani, and Futuh-us-Salatin by Isami.
• Ibn Battuta's Rihla provides insights into the Tughluq period.

Excavations of Siri

• The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) started excavating behind the Siri Fort auditorium in January 2003.
• Siri, established by Alauddin Khalji in 1306, was considered one of the world’s finest cities then.
• Sher Shah Suri destroyed Siri in the 16th century, using its materials for his own city.
• ASI aims to uncover remains of the Siri wall, with lower portions still believed to exist.
• Sinha, superintending archaeologist of ASI (Delhi Circle), is hopeful of finding significant remains.

The Slave or Mamluk Dynasty (1206-1290)

• The first dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate, known as the Slave or Mamluk dynasty, where 'mamluk' means warrior slave.
• Many rulers were former slaves before becoming sultans.
• Qutubuddin Aibak founded this dynasty after being a slave of Muhammad of Ghor.

Qutubuddin Aibak (1206-1210)

• After Muhammad of Ghor’s death in 1206, no successor was named, leading to clashes among his slaves.
• Qutubuddin Aibak gained control of most Ghurid territories and ruled independently from Delhi.
• He began constructing the Qutub Minar and Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque.
• He died accidentally in 1210, just four years into his reign.

Iltutmish (1211-1236)

• Iltutmish, Aibak’s slave and son-in-law, overthrew Aram Shah in 1211 to become sultan.
• Considered the true founder of the Delhi Sultanate.
• Successfully defended the empire against Mongol attacks.
• Established an administrative system and undertook welfare activities.
• Ruled for about 25 years.

Raziya (1236-1240) and Minor Nobles

• Minhaj-i-Siraj’s work is the main source for Raziya’s brief reign.
• Raziya, the first Muslim woman ruler of Delhi, was chosen by Iltutmish over his four sons.
• Nobles initially crowned Rukn-ud-din Firoz, Iltutmish’s son, but he was deposed for incompetence.
• Raziya took the throne but faced opposition for appointing non-Turks to key posts.
• Turkish nobles revolted, ousted her, and she was killed while trying to reclaim power.
• After Iltutmish, four princes were killed by nobles in a decade of chaos.
• Nasir-ud-din Mahmud (1246-1266) became sultan but was controlled by nobles.
• Ghiyasuddin Balban, a powerful noble, later took the throne.

Ghiyasuddin Balban (1266-1287)

• Balban, a Turkish slave of Iltutmish, seized power in 1266.
• He eliminated many nobles and crushed rebellions in Mewat and the Doab regions.
• The Slave dynasty weakened after his death due to less capable successors.
• The dynasty ended in 1290, giving way to the Khalji dynasty.

The Khalji Dynasty (1290-1320)

• Jalaluddin Firoz Khalji founded the Khalji dynasty, ending Turkish slave dominance.
• He managed Mongol invaders and reduced the power of the Chauhans of Ranthambore.
• His nephew, Alauddin Khalji, killed him and took the throne.

Alauddin Khalji (1296-1316)

• Alauddin, the most notable Khalji ruler, built a vast empire.
• He founded the city of Siri and started the Alai Minar, intended to surpass the Qutub Minar.
• The Alai Minar remained incomplete; he also built the Alai Darwaza and a madrasa in the Qutub complex.
• Conquered Gujarat and Malwa, gaining control of western seaports.
• Captured Ranthambore and Chittor in Rajasthan.
• Sent his slave Malik Kafur to defeat southern kingdoms like the Yadavas, Kakatiyas, Hoysalas, and Pandyas.
• Malik Kafur brought back wealth; defeated kings paid tribute and accepted Alauddin’s authority.
• Southern kingdoms often rebelled against the Sultanate.
• Alauddin paid soldiers in cash and created a permanent standing army, a first for Delhi sultans.
• Introduced 'dagh' (branding horses) to prevent substitution with inferior ones.
• Introduced 'chehra,' a record of detailed descriptions of soldiers to stop desertions.
• Died in 1316.

The Tughluq Dynasty (1320-1413)

Ghiyasuddin Tughluq (1320-1325)

• From the Qarauna tribe, served as Alauddin’s muqta in Dipalpur.
• Dealt with rebellions and improved administration.
• Strengthened and expanded the empire.
• Died in 1325, succeeded by his son Muhammad bin Tughluq.

Muhammad bin Tughluq (1325-1351)

• Chroniclers like Isami and Barani claimed he was not religious due to ties with jogis and Jain saints.
• Faced rebellions from Muslim leaders but subdued them.
• Became unpopular due to controversial decisions causing discontent.
• Many rebellions led to significant territorial losses.
• Ibn Battuta, a traveler, joined his court and admired his justice and virtues.
• Died in 1351.

Case Study: Muhammad bin Tughluq's Policies

• A learned man with knowledge in religion, philosophy, and other fields.
• Promoted people of humble origins, angering nobles.
• Barani criticized these appointments as poor political judgment.
• Shifted the capital from Delhi to Devagiri (renamed Daulatabad) for better control of the south.
• Built a road to Daulatabad, but many died during the summer move.
• Later moved the capital back to Delhi, unable to manage the north-west from Daulatabad.
• The move improved north-south communication; Sufi saints settled in Daulatabad, making it a learning center.
• Introduced token copper coins to match silver and gold coin value due to silver shortage.
• People hoarded gold and silver; illegal minting of token coins occurred.
• Government exchanged token coins for silver, facing heavy financial loss.
• Sent an army to annex Kangra (modern Himachal Pradesh), but suffered heavy casualties.
• Planned to capture Khurasan in Central Asia, raised a large army, but withdrew the plan.
• Disbanded the army after the Khurasan plan failed.
• Unpopular with ulamas due to friendly ties with Jains and Hindus.

Feroz Shah Tughluq (1351-1388)

• Succeeded Muhammad bin Tughluq, sought ulama support, and ruled by Islamic laws.
• Collected jizya, a tax on non-Muslims, even from Brahmins, who were usually exempt.
• Faced rebellions in Gujarat, Sindh, and Bengal.
• Led campaigns to Bengal, Orissa, and Nagarkot, but gained no new territories.
• Could not recover territories lost under his predecessor.
• Reign was mostly prosperous, with cheap goods.
• Built canals, wells, tanks, hospitals, rest houses, and educational institutions.
• Founded new towns and repaired old monuments and mausoleums.
• Translated many Sanskrit texts into Persian.
• Died in 1388.

Timur's Invasion (1398)

• Timur, ruler of Samarkand in Central Asia, invaded India in 1398.
• Attacked Delhi, taking wealth and prisoners back to Samarkand.
• His invasion severely weakened the Tughluq dynasty.
• Left Khizr Khan as his deputy in India.

The Sayyid Dynasty (1414-1451)

• Khizr Khan captured Delhi in 1414, founding the Sayyid dynasty.
• The Sultanate weakened, with rulers focused on controlling rebellions.
• Successors included Mubarak Shah Sayyid, Muhammad Shah Sayyid, and Alauddin Alam Shah.
• In 1451, Bahlul Lodi, an Afghan chief, defeated Alauddin Alam Shah to end the dynasty.

The Lodi Dynasty (1451-1526)

• The fifth and final dynasty, the only Afghan one, led by Bahlul Lodi.
• Consisted of three rulers: Bahlul Lodi, Sikander Lodi, and Ibrahim Lodi.
• Sikander Lodi succeeded Bahlul in 1489.
• Ibrahim Lodi, Sikander’s son, took over in 1517.
• Issued coins and measurement standards used into Mughal times.
• In 1526, Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat.
• Ibrahim Lodi, the only sultan to die in battle, marked the end of the Delhi Sultanate.
• Babur, a descendant of Timur, founded the Mughal dynasty.

Some Important Developments of the Sultanate Period

• Early Sultanate rule saw people settled in garrison towns with permanent armies.
• Sultan’s control was limited beyond these towns to the hinterlands.
• Raids were conducted to gather resources and supplies.
• Territorial expansion occurred under Ghiyasuddin Balban, Alauddin Khalji, and Muhammad bin Tughluq.
• Balban’s campaigns consolidated control over hinterlands.
• Samantas (landlords and chieftains) lost tax collection rights and paid taxes to the Sultanate.
• Forests in the Ganga-Yamuna Doab were cleared, expelling hunter-gatherers and pastoralists.
• Land was given to peasants to boost agriculture.
• New towns and fortresses were built to protect trade routes and encourage regional trade.
• Military expeditions to southern India brought wealth and resources.
• Under Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad bin Tughluq, the empire expanded greatly.
• Distant regions like Bengal and southern kingdoms were hard to govern and often became independent.

The Sultan

• Initially a secular ruler, the sultan later became head of state, army, and judiciary.
• The sultan’s effectiveness determined the empire’s stability.
• Balban claimed divine right to rule to justify his kingship.
• No clear succession rule existed, leading to fights among children, nobles, and generals.
• Support from ulamas and nobles was crucial during succession.
• Sultans had to limit the power of nobles and ulamas once in power.

The Nobility

• Nobles were a powerful group in the Sultanate.
• Early rulers appointed trained slaves to high posts for loyalty.
• Iltutmish favored special slaves called bandagans for military and political roles over aristocrats.
• Bandagans, mostly Turks, were used by Khaljis and Tughluqs too.
• Appointing humble-born people to high posts caused political instability.
• Slaves were loyal to their masters but not to new sultans, causing conflicts.
• Barani criticized Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad bin Tughluq for promoting the ‘low and base born.’
• This angered the traditional landed aristocracy.
• Chihalgani, meaning ‘The Forty,’ referred to Iltutmish’s favorite slaves or a group with forty slaves each.
• After Iltutmish, Chihalgani nobles sought power, placing Aram Shah as a puppet king.
• They caused conflicts during Raziya’s reign and took her throne.
• Balban, once a Chihalgani member, broke their power when he became sultan.
• He introduced court rituals like sijda (prostration) and paibos (kissing feet) to elevate the sultan’s status.
• Balban and Alauddin Khalji used spies called barids to monitor people and nobles.
• Alauddin banned nobles from associating to prevent rebellions.
• Afghans and Indian slave officers gained importance under Alauddin.
• Tughluqs appointed Turks, Mongolians, and Iranians as nobles.
• Muhammad bin Tughluq included Hindustanis alongside Turks, Iranians, and Afghans.
• He tried to control the nobility.
• Under Feroz Shah Tughluq, nobles grew in number and power, with posts becoming hereditary.

Administration

• The sultan held absolute control over administration, aided by nobles.
• Key officials included the Wazir, Ariz-i-mumalik, Wakil-i-dar, and Amir-i-hajib.
• The Wazir acted like a Prime Minister, managing income, expenditure, and revenue collection with deputies.
• Ariz-i-mumalik oversaw the army, handling appointments, training, equipment, and payments.
• Wakil-i-dar managed the royal household’s affairs.
• Amir-i-hajib, the master of ceremonies, handled petitions to the sultan through subordinates.
• Ulamas advised the sultan on judicial and religious matters.
• The empire was split into provinces called subas.
• Subas were divided into shiqs, then into parganas (groups of villages).
• Muqti or iqtadar, often favored slaves or nobles, headed the provinces.
• Iqtadars received land grants (iqtas) instead of salaries.
• They maintained law and order and supplied troops to the sultan.
• Under Mamluks and Khaljis, iqtas went to select high nobles.
• Tughluqs increased the number of iqtadars.
• Iqtas were not hereditary; they returned to the sultan after an iqtadar’s death.
• Iqtadars could be transferred to other iqtas.
• Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad bin Tughluq followed this policy.
• Under Feroz Shah Tughluq, iqtas became hereditary, passing to sons, sons-in-law, or slaves.
• Shiqdar headed the shiqs.
• Amil led the parganas.
• Landowners, called muqaddam or khut, held key village roles.
• Patwari maintained land records.

Economy

• Land was the main revenue source.
• Kharaj, a tax on cultivation, took about 50% of a peasant’s produce.
• Charai was a tax for owning cattle, and ghari for owning a house.
• Administrators measured land and kept records.
• Some samantas (old chieftains and landlords) collected and assessed revenue.
• Alauddin introduced market reforms, fixing prices for essentials like food grains, cloth, oil, sugar, and horses.
• Officials ensured goods were sold at fixed prices, with harsh penalties for violations.
• Weights and measures were standardized.
• These reforms helped soldiers and common people.
• During food shortages, Alauddin rationed food grains, allocating a fixed amount to each person.
• Barani notes no shortage or price rise in Delhi even during famines.
• Alauddin measured cultivated land and raised land tax in the Doab region.
• Peasants paid in kind, sometimes in cash.
• Grain revenue was collected and stored in the city.

Mongol Problem

• Delhi sultans faced repeated Mongol attacks from the north-west.
• Iltutmish avoided a Mongol attack by not sheltering Jalal-ud-din Mangbarni, pursued by Genghis Khan.
• Balban built fortifications to protect against Mongols.
• Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad bin Tughluq faced multiple Mongol invasions.
• Alauddin raised a large standing army and built the garrison town of Siri.
• His army defeated the Mongols in every attempt.
• Muhammad bin Tughluq shifted the capital to Daulatabad partly to escape Mongol threats in the north-west.
• He also aimed to manage newly annexed southern territories.
• Realizing he couldn’t control the north-west from Daulatabad, he returned to Delhi.

Decline of the Sultanate

• Decline began during the Tughluq period.
• Revolts during Muhammad bin Tughluq’s reign led to the rise of the Bahmani and Vijayanagara kingdoms.
• Afghans and Rajputs also gained power.
• Feroz Shah Tughluq couldn’t stop the empire’s breakup.
• Timur’s 1398 invasion exposed the Sultanate’s weakness.
• In 1526, Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat.
• This ended the Delhi Sultanate and started the Mughal Empire.