The Mughal Empire Chapter Notes | History Class 7 ICSE PDF Download

Introduction

Babur (1526-1530)

• Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur, ruler of Ferghana in Central Asia, became king at age 12 after his father’s death
• Driven out by Uzbeks, he captured Kabul in 1504 and turned his focus to India
• Gained control of Punjab from governor Daulat Khan
• Defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat in 1526, occupying Delhi and Agra
• Overcame Rajput ruler Rana Sanga and allies at Khanua in 1527
• Defeated Rajputs at Chanderi in 1528
• Triumphed over Afghan chiefs under Mahmud Lodi at Ghaghra in 1529
• Adopted a moderate stance in religious matters, allowing defeated rulers to govern if they accepted his authority
• Control over Kabul and Kandahar protected India from invasions for 200 years
• Strengthened foreign trade by including these regions in the empire
• Died in 1530 after a short illness; buried in Agra, later reburied in Kabul as per his wishes
• His autobiography, Tuzuk-i-Baburi or Baburnama, written in Chagatai Turkish, provides insights into nature, society, politics, and economics

Humayun (1530-1540; 1555-1556)

• Nasiruddin Muhammad Humayun, Babur’s eldest son, inherited the throne
• Faced challenges in control, administration, finances, and Afghan threats
• Per Babur’s will and Timurid tradition, the empire was split among Humayun and his brothers Kamran, Askari, and Hindal
• Encountered opposition from Bahadur Shah of Gujarat and Sher Shah Suri of Bihar and Bengal
• Defeated by Sher Shah Suri at Chausa in 1539 and Kanauj in 1540, forcing him to flee to Persia
• Found refuge with Safavid ruler Shah Tahmasp in Persia
• Regained his empire after 15 years of exile with Shah’s help
• Died in 1556 after falling down stairs in his library at Sher Mandal, Purana Qila
• Succeeded by his son, Akbar
• Humayun Nama, written by his sister Gulbadan Begum, details his reign

Sher Shah Suri (1540-1545)

• Sher Khan, known as Sher Shah Suri, founded the Sur dynasty after defeating Humayun
• Established control over most of north India, except Kashmir
• Removed Rajputs who resisted but maintained ties with those who accepted his rule
• Excelled as a military leader and skilled administrator
• Kept tight control over administration with a system of spies
• Introduced strict court rituals to reinforce his authority
• Built a large, disciplined army
• Revived Alauddin Khalji’s dagh (branding) and chehra (registration) system for the army
• Replaced poor-quality coins with gold (mohur), silver (rupia), and copper (dam) coins
• Set up a tax collection system
• Constructed roads and rest houses (sarais) for travelers
• Established free kitchens to aid the poor
• Improved trade and communication
• Enhanced the justice system
• Built the Grand Trunk Road from Sonargaon (Bangladesh) to Peshawar (Pakistan)
• Planted trees along roads and placed horses at sarais for news delivery
• Ensured roads and highways were safe during his rule
• Developed Humayun’s city Dinpanah, renaming it Shergarh
• Revived Pataliputra (Patna), a city in decline since the 7th century
• Built monuments like Rohtas Fort (Pakistan), Qila-i-Kuhna mosque in Purana Qila, and his tomb in Sasaram (Bihar)
• Died in 1545 from a gunpowder explosion during the siege of Kalinjar Fort against the Chandela Rajputs
• Tarikh-i-Sher Shahi by Abbas Khan Sarwani, a court official under Akbar, provides details of his reign

Sher Shah Suri's Successors

• Succeeded by his son Jalal Khan, who took the title Islam Shah Suri
• Islam Shah Suri ruled until his death in 1553
• Adil Shah Suri, the last Sur dynasty ruler, governed until Humayun restored Mughal rule

Case Study: Akbar the Great (1556-1605)

• Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar, aged 13, became emperor in 1556 after Humayun’s death
• Bairam Khan served as his regent during his early years
• Faced a challenge from Hemu, Adil Shah Suri’s Hindu commander, who occupied Delhi and took the title ‘Vikramaditya’
• Defeated Hemu in the Second Battle of Panipat in 1556, guided by Bairam Khan, restoring Mughal rule
• Ended Bairam Khan’s regency; Bairam Khan was killed en route to Mecca

Expansion and Consolidation of the Mughal Empire under Akbar

• Expanded the empire through conquests and alliances
• Annexed Malwa and Gondwana
• Captured Chittor, the Sisodiya Rajput capital of Mewar
• Rulers of Bikaner and Jaisalmer accepted Mughal authority after Chittor’s fall
• Seized Ranthambore
• Conducted military campaigns in Gujarat, Bihar, Bengal, and Orissa (Odisha) from 1570-1585
• Conquered Kandahar from the Safavids, seized Kabul after Mirza Hakim’s death, and annexed Kashmir in the north-west
• Annexed Berar, Khandesh, and parts of Ahmednagar in the Deccan
• Faced a revolt from his son, Prince Salim (future Jahangir), late in his reign

Akbar's Rajput Policy

• Formed marriage alliances with Rajput clans, including the princess of Amber, mother of Jahangir
• Appointed Rajputs to high administrative posts
• Recognized the value of Hindu support and Rajput military strength
• Key Rajput officials included Raja Todarmal, Raja Bhagwan Das, and Raja Man Singh
• Some Rajput states, like Mewar and Marwar, resisted through guerrilla warfare
• Maharana Pratap of Mewar opposed Akbar, lost at the Battle of Haldighati (1576), but continued fighting and recaptured much of his kingdom
• Most resistant Rajput families eventually accepted Akbar’s rule
• Allowed Rajputs to keep inherited lands (watan) as watan jagir, gaining valuable allies

Akbar's Religious Policy

• Held a liberal outlook, respecting all religions despite being an orthodox Muslim
• Permitted Hindu wives and court members like Birbal to follow their faith
• Abolished the pilgrim tax (teertha) and jizya, a tax on non-Muslims, fostering Hindu goodwill
• Ended forced conversion of war prisoners to Islam
• Participated in Hindu festivals like Holi, Deepavali, and Raksha Bandhan
• Built the Ibadat Khana at Fatehpur Sikri for discussions on faith, science, nature, and history
• Invited ulamas, Brahmins, Christian missionaries, Buddhist and Jain monks, and Zoroastrians to debates
• Influenced by discussions, created Din-i-Ilahi or Tauhid-i-Ilahi, promoting universal peace (Sulh-i-kul)
• With Abul Fazl’s help, governed based on universal peace, a policy continued by Jahangir and Shah Jahan

Administrative Reforms

• Divided the empire into 12 provinces, subdivided for better governance
• Introduced the mansabdari system, assigning military ranks to civil officers
• Eliminated the powerful wazir post to keep ultimate control with the emperor
• Granted land to religious scholars and institutions
• Contributed to revenue collection and assessment reforms

Cultural Contributions

• Ordered translation of Sanskrit works like Ramayana, Mahabharata, Lilavati, and Yogavashisht into Persian
• Hosted the navratnas (nine gems): Tansen, Birbal, Abul Fazl, Faizi, Raja Todarmal, Raja Mansingh, Abdul Rahim Khan-i-Khana, Mullah Do Piaza, and Fakir Aziao-Din
• Died in 1605
• Abul Fazl’s Akbarnama, a three-volume history, covers Akbar’s ancestors, reign, and administration
• Ain-i-Akbari, the third volume, details administration, army, revenue, household, and Indian culture
• Badauni’s Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh offers a critical view of Akbar’s reign, religious policies, and Muslim history in India

Jahangir (1605-1627)

• Prince Nur-ud-din Muhammad Salim took the title Jahangir (Conqueror of the World) after Akbar’s death
• Continued Akbar’s liberal and religious policies
• Maintained good ties with Rajputs, married Rajput princesses, and gave them high posts
• Known for fairness, introduced the ‘golden bell of justice’ for direct public access
• Supported art, with Mughal miniature painting reaching great heights

Jahangir's Empire

• Inherited a vast empire from Akbar, further consolidated and expanded it
• Ended the Mughal-Mewar rivalry when Amar Singh, Maharana Pratap’s successor, accepted Mughal authority
• Conquered Kangra
• Faced regular uprisings from the Ahom tribe in Assam
• Deployed forces against Ahmednagar in the Deccan, where resistance persisted
• Lost Kandahar to the Persians in 1622, affecting trade routes to Afghanistan, Central Asia, and Persia
• Imprisoned his son Prince Khusrau for rebellion
• Saw Guru Arjan Dev, who aided Khusrau, as a threat
• Granted trading rights to Portuguese and British merchants
• Allowed the British East India Company, arriving in 1600, to open a trading post at Surat
• Sir Thomas Roe, envoy of British king James I, visited and described Jahangir’s court
• Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, his memoirs, cover his reign, family, art, architecture, and observations on flora and fauna

Nur Jahan

• Mehrunnissa, an Iranian widow, became Nur Jahan (Light of the World) after marrying Jahangir
• Held significant influence in court politics
• Silver coins bore Jahangir’s name and title on one side, and her title on the other
• Retired from public life after Jahangir’s death

Shah Jahan (1628-1658)

• Prince Khurram took the title Shahabuddin Muhammad Shah Jahan (King of the World) after Jahangir’s death
• Secured the throne by executing other claimants

Shah Jahan's Empire

• Empire spanned Sindh in the west to Sylhet in Bengal, and Balkh in the north to the Deccan in the south
• Strengthened control over existing Mughal territories
• Conquered Ahmednagar in the Deccan; Bijapur and Golconda paid annual tribute
• Defeated the Bundela Rajputs
• Forced powerful landowners in Chanda, Gondwana, and Baltistan (Kashmir) to pay large tributes
• Faced resistance from the Sikhs
• Failed to regain Central Asian territories and Kandahar from the Safavid Shahs
• Recognized the Ahoms as independent after a fierce war in the north-east
• Captured Jessore and Bakla in the east to stop Portuguese piracy
• Portuguese ceased activities in the region after his attack

Cultural Contributions

• Known for grand monuments, marking the ‘Golden Age of Mughal Architecture’
• Built the Taj Mahal, his most famous monument
• Constructed Shahjahanabad, now Old Delhi
• Revenue growth from the vast empire funded these projects
• Padshahnama by Abdul Hamid Lahori and Shahjahanama by Inayat Khan detail his reign
• Foreign travelers like Bernier (Travels in the Mughal Empire) and Tavernier (Travels in India) recorded his era

War of Succession

• Shah Jahan fell ill in 1657, sparking a succession war among sons Dara Shikoh, Shuja, Aurangzeb, and Murad
• Nominated Dara Shikoh as successor, but Aurangzeb won in 1658
• Aurangzeb killed his brothers and imprisoned Shah Jahan in Agra Fort
• Shah Jahan died in 1666

Aurangzeb (1658-1707)

• Muhiuddin Muhammad Aurangzeb took the title Alamgir (Conqueror of the World) in 1658
• Ruled for 49 years, expanding the empire to its greatest extent, covering most of India
• Focused on controlling existing Mughal regions
• Faced numerous revolts, requiring time and resources to suppress

Aurangzeb's Empire

• In the north-east, Koch Bihar and Ahom rulers rebelled; Koch Bihar was annexed, Guwahati and Garhgaon temporarily reoccupied
• Pathan tribes in the north-west revolted in 1667 and 1672
• In north India, raised land tax, causing conflicts with Jats, Satnamis, and Bundelas
• Interfered in Rajput states of Mewar and Marwar, leading to clashes
• Fought a long, tough battle against Shivaji and the Marathas in the Deccan
• Faced a revolt from his son Akbar, who allied with Rajputs, Marathas, and Deccan Sultanates
• Captured Bijapur and Golconda in the Deccan; Akbar fled to Persia
• Could not fully defeat the Marathas
• After Shivaji’s death, his son Sambhaji fought bravely but was captured and executed by Aurangzeb
• Wars, long absence from north India, and poor statesmanship weakened the empire
• Died in 1707, followed by a succession war among his sons

Aurangzeb's Religious Policies

• An orthodox, god-fearing Muslim, lived simply without ostentation, earning the title zinda pir (living saint)
• Aimed to rule by sharia (Islamic law)
• Banned music, alcohol, and gambling in court
• Abandoned Akbar’s policy of tolerance
• Reintroduced jizya, opposed by Hindus, but reduced it during crop failures and suspended it in the south during Maratha wars
• Initially spared old temples per sharia, but banned new ones; later ordered some destroyed
• Clashed with Sikhs, executing Guru Teg Bahadur
• Sikhs, led by Guru Gobind Singh, formed the khalsa, a military brotherhood, to fight the Mughals
• Ended Akbar’s jharokha darshan, a public address from the palace balcony
• Discouraged history writing, but works like Alamgirnama by Muhammad Kazim, Futuhat-i-Alamgiri by Ishwar Das, and Muntakhabul-Lubab by Khafi Khan detail his reign

Mughal Administration

• Combined Central Asian and Indian traditions for efficient governance
• Akbar laid the foundation, detailed in Abul Fazl’s Ain-i-Akbari
• Centralized system with the emperor in full control
• Akbar removed the powerful wazir post, dividing its duties among other offices
• Council of ministers included: diwan (revenue and expenditure), mir bakshi (military administration), mir saman (supply department), and sadr (enforced sharia, later abolished by Akbar)
• Empire split into provinces (subas) led by subadars
• Subas divided into districts (sarkars), then into parganas
• Towns managed by kotwals (town police commanders) who upheld law, checked weights and measures, and tracked residents
• Police stations called kotwalis, a term still used today
• Army consisted of infantry, cavalry, war elephants, and artillery
• Akbar had a weak navy but maintained trained bodyguards and palace guards

Mansabdari System

• Introduced by Akbar, a grading system for military rank, salary, and responsibilities
• Mansabdar was a person with a mansab (rank)
• Rank based on zat (salary and status) and sawar (number of horses and horsemen to maintain)
• Higher zat rank meant better position and status
• Mansabdars brought cavalry for review, registered them, and branded horses (chehra and dagh)
• Emperor could use mansabdars’ troops when needed
• Mansabdars could be promoted, demoted, or transferred by the emperor
• Rank was not hereditary
• Recruited diverse groups: Turanis, Iranis, Indian Muslims, Afghans, Rajputs, and Marathas
• Salaries paid via jagirs (land grants)
• Mansabdars maintained households and troops with jagir revenue
• Jagirs were not permanent; mansabdars only collected revenue, not lived on the land
• Under Akbar, jagir revenue matched salary
• By Aurangzeb’s time, revenue fell short, jagirs were scarce, and mansabdars overburdened peasants

Revenue Administration

• Land was the primary revenue source
• Peasants paid taxes via rural elites, headmen, or local chieftains
• Mughals called these intermediaries zamindars
• Raja Todarmal, Akbar’s revenue minister, shaped the system, building on Sher Shah Suri’s model
• Lands were measured, and crop yields, prices, and cultivated areas surveyed from 1570-1580
• Tax fixed in cash at one-third of the average produce based on 10-year data
• Provinces had revenue circles with specific rates for each crop
• Zabt system, based on measurement, used where land could be surveyed
• Not applied in Bengal and Gujarat due to survey challenges
• Khalisa lands managed directly by the state, revenue going to the treasury
• Zamindars, semi-independent, collected revenue and maintained law and order
• In jagir areas, zamindars and village officials gathered revenue
• Some zamindars gained significant power in certain regions

The Mughal Empire after the 'Great Mughals'

• Reached its peak under Aurangzeb but began to decline during his reign
• After his death in 1707, a succession war erupted among his sons
• Successors were weak and inefficient, empowering nobles
• Empire disintegrated by 1739 during Nadir Shah’s invasions
• Distant provinces like Gujarat, Bengal, Awadh, and Hyderabad became independent
• Mughal emperor title lasted until 1857, but controlled only a small area
• Invasions by Nadir Shah and Ahmed Shah Abdali in the 18th century further weakened the empire