Revision Notes: Human Development | Psychology Class 11 - Humanities/Arts PDF Download

Meaning of Development

Life-Span Perspective on Development

Growth, Development, Maturation, and Evolution

• Growth: Physical increases (e.g., height, weight).
• Development: Holistic changes across physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional domains.
• Maturation: Genetically driven biological changes (e.g., puberty).
• Evolution: Species-level changes over generations, not individual development.

Factors Influencing Development

Heredity and Environment

• Genotype: Genetic code inherited from parents, present in every cell.
• Phenotype: Observable traits resulting from genotype and environmental interaction.
• Environmental Influence: Parents’ genetic predispositions shape environments; children choose environments matching traits.
• Socio-Cultural Context: Development occurs within specific social and cultural settings, evolving throughout life.

Genes vs. Environment

Both influence outcomes like academic success or job attainment, with complex interactions (e.g., a bright child’s success depends on both talent and opportunities).

Context of Development

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory

• Microsystem: Immediate settings (e.g., family, school, peers).
• Mesosystem: Relationships between microsystems (e.g., parent-teacher interactions).
• Exosystem: Indirect social influences (e.g., parents’ workplace policies).
• Macrosystem: Broader cultural and societal norms.
• Chronosystem: Life events and historical contexts (e.g., divorce, economic crises).

Durganand Sinha’s Ecological Model (India)

• Key Layers: Home, school, peers.
• Factors: Home conditions (space, toys), quality of schooling, peer interactions.

Poor environments (e.g., lack of books, noisy homes) hinder development, causing learning difficulties.

Overview of Developmental Stages

Development is divided into stages with unique characteristics and developmental tasks, varying by individual pace.

Prenatal Stage

• Duration: Conception to birth (~40 weeks).
• Influences: Maternal age, nutrition, emotions; diseases (e.g., rubella); teratogens (e.g., alcohol, pollutants).
• Risks: Abnormalities or death from environmental exposures.

Infancy

Physical Development

• Rapid brain growth; neural connections form.
• Reflexes (e.g., sucking, blinking) transition to voluntary skills (e.g., crawling, walking).
• Cephalocaudal and proximodistal development patterns.

Sensory Abilities

• Recognise mother’s voice; vision improves to near-adult levels by age 1.
• Can feel touch, pain, smell, and taste.

Cognitive Development (Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage)

• Explores via senses; lacks object permanence initially.
• Vocalisation begins at 3–6 months.

Socio-Emotional Development

• Attachment to caregivers is critical (Erikson’s trust vs. mistrust).
• Contact comfort (e.g., Harlow’s studies) provides security.

Childhood

Physical Development

• Slower growth; cephalocaudal/proximodistal patterns continue.
• Improved gross (e.g., running) and fine motor skills (e.g., writing).

Cognitive Development (Piaget’s Stages)

• Preoperational (2–7 years): Symbolic thought, egocentrism, animism, centration.
• Concrete Operational (7–11 years): Logical thinking, reversible operations, reduced egocentrism.

Socio-Emotional Development

• Independence and initiative (Erikson’s initiative vs. guilt).
• Self-understanding evolves from physical to psychological traits.

Moral Development (Kohlberg)

• Young children view morality via external authority; progress with cognitive growth.

Adolescence

Physical Development

• Puberty: Hormonal changes trigger primary/secondary sexual characteristics.
• Growth spurts (boys: ~12–13, girls: ~10–11); sexual identity forms.

Cognitive Development (Piaget’s Formal Operational Stage)

• Abstract, logical thinking; systematic problem-solving.
• Egocentrism: Imaginary audience, personal fable.

Identity Formation

• Quest for self-identity; conflicts with parents/peers.
• Influenced by culture, family, and socio-economic factors.

Major Concerns

• Delinquency: Behaviours like theft, vandalism, linked to low self-esteem, family issues.
• Substance Abuse: Smoking, alcohol, drugs; driven by stress, peer pressure.
• Eating Disorders: Anorexia, bulimia; influenced by media, urban settings.

Adulthood and Old Age

Early Adulthood

• Career: Workforce entry, proving competence.
• Family: Marriage, parenting, balancing roles.

Middle Age

• Physical declines (e.g., vision, hearing); cognitive gains in wisdom.

Old Age

• Retirement, health challenges, loneliness; successful ageing via relationships, health.
• Cultural perspectives shape views on death; support systems aid bereavement.

Conclusion

Human development is a lifelong, holistic process influenced by biological, cognitive, and socio-emotional factors within specific socio-cultural contexts. From prenatal stages to old age, each phase presents unique tasks and challenges, shaped by the interplay of genetics and environment, as explained by theories like Bronfenbrenner’s and Piaget’s.