Sure Shot Questions for Board Exams: Bricks, Beads and Bones | History Class 12 - Humanities/Arts PDF Download

Key features of Harappan urban planning include:

• Planned layouts: Cities like Mohenjo-daro and Harappa had a grid system for streets.
• Advanced drainage: A sophisticated drainage system was integrated into the city design.
• Standardised bricks: Buildings were constructed using uniform burnt bricks.
• Citadel: A raised area for administration, separate from residential zones.
• Residential areas: Lower towns were designated for housing, showcasing organised living spaces.

The decline of the Harappan Civilisation around 1900 BCE can be linked to several factors:

• Environmental changes: Shifts in river patterns and climate change may have affected agriculture.
• Invasions: There is speculation about possible invasions or conflicts that disrupted society.
• Internal issues: Social or economic problems could have contributed to the decline.

While these factors are discussed, the precise cause of the decline remains a topic of debate among historians.

The Harappan civilisation utilised a variety of raw materials for craft production, including:

• Stones: Carnelian, jasper, crystal, quartz, and steatite.
• Metals: Copper, bronze, and gold.
• Shell
• Faience: Fired glazed clay.
• Terracotta: Baked clay.

These materials were obtained through several methods:

• Local Settlements: Sites like Nageshwar and Balakot were near shell sources, while Shortughai in Afghanistan provided lapis lazuli. Lothal was close to carnelian and steatite.
• Trade Expeditions: Expeditions to Rajasthan's Khetri hills for copper and to South India for gold.
• Long-Distance Trade: Copper was sourced from Oman, and gold possibly came via sea routes to Mesopotamia (Meluhha).

Thus, the Harappans either settled near resource-rich areas or established trade networks to acquire necessary materials.

The primary reason our understanding of the Harappan (Indus Valley) civilisation is less comprehensive than that of other ancient cultures is the undeciphered script. Unlike the texts of Egypt or Mesopotamia, which scholars can read, the Indus script lacks a Rosetta Stone for translation. Key points include:

• We have no direct written records detailing Harappan religion, governance, or laws.
• Our knowledge is based almost entirely on archaeological findings, such as buildings, seals, and beads.
• This reliance on material evidence limits our insights into their political structure, literature, and beliefs.

Cunningham, the first Director-General of the ASI, faced confusion while studying Harappan sites due to several factors:

• He primarily relied on the itineraries of Chinese pilgrims, which did not include Harappa.
• His focus was on the Early Historic period, leading him to overlook the significance of Harappan artefacts.
• When he received a Harappan seal, he struggled to place it within his familiar time-frame.
• Cunningham believed Indian history began with the first cities in the Ganga valley, causing him to miss the importance of Harappa.

As a result, he did not recognise the age and relevance of the artefacts he encountered

Marshall's excavation technique involved digging in uniform horizontal layers across the entire mound. This approach had several drawbacks:

• It ignored the site's stratigraphy, mixing artefacts from different periods.
• This led to a loss of valuable context regarding the artefacts.

In contrast, R.E.M. Wheeler focused on excavating along the natural historical layers of the mound:

• His method preserved the chronological context of finds.
• This allowed archaeologists to understand how settlements evolved.

Harappan seals and sealings played a crucial role in trade by ensuring the security and authenticity of goods. Here’s how they were used:

• Goods were packed in bags, which were tied shut with a rope.
• Seals were pressed into wet clay at the knot, creating an impression.
• If the seal impression was intact upon arrival, it indicated that the shipment was untampered.
• The seal often displayed the sender's name or title, identifying the origin of the goods.

In short, seals ensured security and authenticated goods during long-distance trade.

Harappan cities were divided into two main sections:

• Citadel: This was a fortified area built on a high brick platform. It included important public buildings like granaries and baths, indicating its role as a centre for administration and elite activities.
• Lower Town: This section was larger and lower in elevation, featuring houses built on mud-brick platforms. The presence of walls suggests it was also planned for residential purposes.

This division reflects the careful urban planning of Harappan cities.

Harappan writing has distinct features that set it apart from other ancient scripts:

• Non-alphabetic: The Harappan script consists of around 375 to 400 unique signs, indicating it is not based on an alphabet.
• Direction: It is typically written from right to left, as evidenced by the layout of inscriptions on seals.
• Short inscriptions: Most inscriptions are brief, with the longest containing only about 26 signs, and they remain undeciphered.

Archaeologists reconstruct the past of the Harappan civilisation through various methods:

• They excavate Harappan sites to uncover material remains such as pottery, tools, seals, weights, and architecture.
• Biological remains, including plant seeds, animal bones, and human skeletons, are also analysed.
• Stratigraphy is used to date different layers of soil and associate objects found within them.
• Collaboration with specialists, like botanists and zoologists, helps identify crops and domesticated animals.
• Evidence of water management, such as sewage systems, irrigation channels, and wells, reveals insights into their infrastructure.
• Unfinished objects and waste from workshops indicate locations of craft production.
• Indirect evidence, such as references in Mesopotamian texts to "Meluhha," aids in understanding trade connections.

By piecing together artefacts, ecofacts, and their contexts, archaeologists create a comprehensive picture of Harappan society, economy, and beliefs.

The Harappan drainage system was a remarkable feat of urban planning, featuring:

• Brick-lined, covered drains running beneath the streets.
• Each house included a private bathroom, with its outlet connected to the street drains.
• Smaller drains from houses fed into larger channels.
• Rainwater drains, measuring 2–5 feet wide, managed excess water.
• Manholes, made of removable brick slabs, allowed for easy cleaning.
• The streets were laid out in a grid pattern, enhancing organisation.

This advanced system, found in major Harappan towns, is regarded as one of the world's earliest urban sanitation systems

The Harappans employed various subsistence strategies, including:

• Mixed farming: They cultivated crops such as wheat, barley, rice, millets, pulses (like lentils and chickpeas), and sesame.
• Animal husbandry: Domesticated animals included cattle, sheep, goats, buffaloes, and pigs. They used oxen for ploughing, as indicated by terracotta plough models.
• Fishing and hunting: They consumed wild game, including boar and deer, and fished for additional protein.
• Irrigation: Many Harappan sites were in semi-arid regions, making irrigation essential. Evidence of canals and reservoirs, such as those at Shortughai and Dholavira, suggests they used these systems to water their crops.

The Harappans used bricks with a uniform ratio of length, breadth, and height (4:2:1) across major sites. This standardisation suggests:

• Centralised planning or shared architectural norms.
• Compatibility in construction, such as drains fitting into houses.
• Administrative control over building projects.

The Great Bath was a large, watertight tank measuring 30 by 15 feet and about 8 feet deep. It featured:

• Steps at both the north and south ends.
• Corridors surrounding the tank.

Its intricate design and central position in the Citadel imply it had a ceremonial purpose. Most scholars believe it was used for:

• Ritual bathing or purification rites.
• Community gatherings focused on water and cleanliness.

The careful construction of the Bath indicates its significance in religious or social practices.

Harappan burials reveal social differences through various features:

a) Burials were typically in north-south pits, sometimes lined with bricks.
b) Grave goods varied significantly:

• Some graves contained pottery, beads, and ornaments.
• Women’s graves often included bangles.
  

c) Richer burials had more valuable items, indicating social differentiation.
d) However, truly precious items were rarely buried, suggesting limited inequality.

Luxury items were crafted from rare or imported materials and required skilled craftsmanship. Examples include:

• Glazed faience vessels
• Gold and carnelian jewellery
• Lapis lazuli ornaments
• Intricately carved seals

These luxury artefacts are typically found in major urban sites like Mohenjodaro and Harappa, often in areas associated with the elite. In contrast, smaller villages rarely yield such items. The presence of precious materials, such as gold and imported stones, along with fine craftsmanship in large cities, indicates an urban elite that controlled trade and specialised production.

• Planned Layout: Cities were built on grids with streets at right angles. There was a clear division into citadel and lower town, each walled.

• Standardized Architecture: Uniform baked bricks (length=4×height, width=2×height) were used across sites. Public buildings (granaries, baths, warehouses) and large platforms show organized civic design.

• Sophisticated Infrastructure: Covered drainage systems with house-connected drains, public wells, and large reservoirs (e.g. Dholavira) indicate deliberate urban planning.

• Public Buildings: Structures like the Great Bath, granaries, and the “stupa”-like platforms in the citadel served communal functions. Their scale implies coordinated labor and governance.

• Specialized Zones: Entire city quarters (e.g. Chanhudaro) were devoted to crafts (bead-making, metallurgy), while residential sectors had courtyards and no direct street views for privacy.

• Economic Complexity: Standard weights and seals indicate regulated commerce; long-distance trade networks connected ports (Lothal) to Mesopotamia. Cities had storehouses and workshops suggesting administration of production and storage.

• Population Size: Some settlements covered hundreds of hectares (Harappa, Mohenjodaro), implying tens of thousands of inhabitants.

These features – grid planning, municipal services, uniform construction, and craft specialization – make Harappan civilization distinctly urban and advanced for its time.