Sure Shot Questions for Board Exams: Bhakti-Sufi Traditions | History Class 12 - Humanities/Arts PDF Download

The Alvars were Tamil poet-saints devoted to Vishnu, and the Nayanars were poet-saints devoted to Shiva. They launched early Bhakti movements in South India, singing hymns of devotion (in Tamil) at village shrines. Chola kings actively patronised both traditions:

• Granted land and funds for constructing great temples to Shiva and Vishnu (e.g. at Chidambaram, Tanjavur and Gangaikonda Cholapuram)

• Sponsored bronze icons and temple rituals to honour these saints’ visions

• Cholas legitimised their rule by building temples and enshrining these popular saints in the state cult

• The Nalayira Divya Prabandham is a collection of 4,000 Tamil devotional hymns written by the 12 Alvars between the 5th and 8th centuries. 
• It was compiled by the theologian Nathamuni in the 9th to 10th centuries. 
• This anthology celebrates the various forms of Vishnu and is highly revered among Sri Vaishnavites. It is often referred to as the “Tamil Veda” or “Dravida Veda”, signifying its religious significance comparable to the Sanskrit Vedas. 
• The Alvars received support from Tamil chiefs, including the Chola dynasty, who contributed to the establishment of Vishnu temples and the promotion of their traditions

Basavanna (c.1106–1168) was a 12th-century Shaiva poet-philosopher and social reformer in Karnataka. He was originally a minister in the Kalachuri court and founded a new Shaiva devotional movement. His followers worshipped Shiva and wore a personal linga on their bodies. They came to be known as:

• Virashaivas (heroes of Shiva)

• Lingayats (wearers of the Linga)

Lingayats rejected many orthodox Hindu beliefs and practices, especially those upheld by Brahmanas:

• Rejected caste hierarchy and ritual pollution

• Denied the theory of rebirth and the varna system

• Believed in uniting with Shiva after death (no return/rebirth)

• Rejected cremation, opted for burial instead

• Supported widow remarriage and post-puberty marriage

• Andal (devotee of Vishnu) only woman among the twelve Alvars; credited with the Tiruppavai hymns
• Karaikkal Ammaiyar (devotee of Shiva).

Both:

• Composed Tamil devotional poetry

• Rejected caste and ritual orthodoxy

Difference:

• Theological focus: Vishnu (Alvars) vs. Shiva (Nayanars

• Silsila: A spiritual lineage or chain of masters linking a living shaykh (Pir) back to the Prophet Muhammad. Symbolises the transmission of spiritual blessings and teachings.

• Ziyarat: Pilgrimage to the shrine of a saint (dargah). Often done on the saint’s death anniversary (urs), marking his union with God.

• Sufi saints had mass spiritual authority and moral credibility

• Kings gained legitimacy and popular support through association

• Many rulers built tombs near Sufi shrines

• Patronage of dargahs enhanced their divine image and prestige

• Development of Sufi literature and spiritual manuals on Qur’anic commentary and meditative practice
• Establishment of institutional centres (khanqahs) led by sheikhs, where disciples received spiritual training and guidance

• His personal piety, charity, and miracles drew admiration

• Supported by Mughal rulers like Akbar, who visited and patronised the shrine

• Located on a major trade route, it attracts many visitors

• Became the most venerated Sufi shrine in India

Due to the saint’s spiritual reputation, royal patronage by the Mughals, and its location on a major trade route between Delhi and Gujarat.

• Simplicity and universality of the Five Pillars

• Egalitarian principles and lack of caste

• Adaptation to local cultures and languages

• Sufi missionaries’ message of love and charity

• Royal patronage of mosques and religious institutions

Originated as a response to the growing materialism and ritualism of the Caliphate

Sufis emphasised:

• Devotional love and inner spirituality

• Ascetic life and personal experience of God

• Criticism of rigid theology and external rituals

• Use of music (sama), dhikr (remembrance), and poetry

• Personal devotion to one God

• Rejection of caste and priestly dominance

• Use of vernacular languages for mass outreach

• Inner faith over external rituals

• Social equality and universal brotherhood

• Worship through love, surrender, and simplicity

Be-Shari’a and Ba-Shari’a refer to two distinct traditions within Sufism.

• Ba-Shari’a Sufis adhered to the formal shari’a (Islamic law) in their daily lives.
• Be-Shari’a Sufis intentionally disregarded legal norms to seek mystical experiences.

Both traditions shared a focus on ascetic discipline but differed in their approach to religious conformity:

• Be-Shari’a Sufis often lived as wandering ascetics, known as qalandars or malangs, outside orthodox practices.
• Ba-Shari’a Sufis remained within the bounds of Islamic law.

Despite their differences, both groups emphasised love and devotion to God over mere ritual observance. They also:

• Criticised scholasticism and caste distinctions.
• Utilised Urdu and local languages for their teachings.

Be-Shari’a Sufis rejected Islamic law and rituals, while Ba-Shari’a followed them. Both emphasised devotion and personal experience of God over formalism.

Historians suggest that the Bhakti movement arose mainly due to:

• Reaction to social inequality: It challenged the rigid social order and caste oppression, particularly against the Rajput-Brahmin dominance.
• Socio-economic changes: Urbanisation and the migration of artisans and peasants created a new middle class that was dissatisfied with traditional hierarchies.
• Message of equality: Bhakti's focus on personal faith and equality resonated with lower castes who were often excluded from Brahmanism.
• Inter-religious influences: Ideas from Islam, such as the concept of one God and brotherhood, also shaped the movement.

 The Bhakti movement emerged as a response to the demands of common people for religious reform and greater social equity, driven by factors like social inequality, caste oppression, and the influence of Sufism.

• Tamil Bhakti saints enjoyed close ties with the Chola and other South Indian dynasties.  Chola rulers (9th–13th c.) openly supported the Alvars and Nayanars by building grand temples dedicated to Vishnu and Shiva, many at sites venerated in the saints’ hymns.
• Rulers like the Cholas built temples and supported the worship of Vishnu and Shiva. Bhakti saints helped legitimise royal power and were honoured with temple processions and hymns.
• These kings endowed land and wealth to Brahmins and Bhakti priests, and even installed bronze images of the saints in temple processions.  In effect, the Cholas co-opted Bhakti imagery to legitimise their rule: they proclaimed divine sanction by recreating the saints’ Tamil-language devotional vision in stone and metal. 
• At the same time, the widespread popular worship of these poets helped the rulers win peasant loyalty.  Thus, the Bhakti saints and the state formed a mutually reinforcing relationship in medieval Tamil Nadu.