Key Concepts: Reshaping India's Political Map | Social Science Class 8 - New NCERT PDF Download

Rise and Fall of the Delhi Sultanate

• Delhi Sultanate: A kingdom formed after the defeat of King Prithviraj Chauhan in 1192, ruled by five successive dynasties of Turkic-Afghan origin in northern India. It was a period marked by frequent warfare and territorial expansion attempts.
• Sultans: Muslim rulers who governed the Delhi Sultanate. The sultans held political and military authority but often faced violent successions where new rulers killed their predecessors.
• Mamluks (Slave Dynasty), Khiljis (Khaljis), Tughlaqs, Sayyids, Lodis (Lodhis): The five dynasties that ruled the Delhi Sultanate one after the other.
• Military Campaigns: Large-scale wars or raids conducted by the sultans to conquer new lands or defend the Sultanate. These often involved plundering villages, cities, and temples.
• Plunder: Looting or stealing wealth from conquered cities or kingdoms, which helped finance the Sultanate's army and administration.
• Iconoclasm: The destruction of religious images or icons considered idolatrous. During the Sultanate, many Buddhist, Jain, and Hindu temples were attacked partly due to this belief.
• Jizya: A special tax imposed by some sultans on non-Muslim subjects for protection and exemption from military service. It was often a source of economic and social pressure to convert to Islam.
• Token Currency: An early attempt by Muhammad bin Tughlaq to introduce copper coins as currency tokens instead of silver or gold, but it caused confusion and economic problems.
• Daulatabad/Devagiri: The city to which Muhammad bin Tughlaq attempted to move his capital from Delhi, causing hardship as people had to travel over 1,000 km.
• Timur's invasion: A brutal invasion by the Central Asian ruler Timur in the late 14th century that caused widespread destruction in Delhi, with many killed, enslaved, and the city plundered.

Resistance to the Delhi Sultanate

• Eastern Ganga Kingdom: A region in eastern India (present-day Odisha and parts of Bengal and Andhra Pradesh) that successfully resisted the Delhi Sultanate's expansion.
• Narasimhadeva I: King of the Eastern Ganga kingdom, known for his strong military and cultural achievements, who defeated the Sultanate’s forces and built the famous Sun Temple at Konark.
• Musunuri Nayakas: Telugu chieftains who formed a confederacy of over 75 chieftains to defeat the Tughlaq forces and expelled them from Warangal in the 14th century.
• Hoysalas: A South Indian kingdom (mainly in present-day Karnataka) that resisted multiple attacks by the Delhi Sultanate, remaining independent for a long time before being absorbed into the Vijayanagara Empire.
• Bahmani Sultanate: A powerful kingdom that rose in the Deccan region in the 14th century, challenging the Sultanate and often at war with it.
• Rana Kumbha: A Rajput ruler of Mewar (in Rajasthan) who strongly resisted the Delhi Sultanate and successfully kept his kingdom independent during the 15th century.
• Rajputs: Warrior clans in northwest India known for their brave resistance to invasions and their efforts to protect their kingdoms.
• Kumbhalgarh Fort: A large and strategically built fort in the Aravalli hills, used by the rulers of Mewar as a stronghold against invasions. It has one of the longest continuous walls in the world.

The Vijayanagar Empire

• Vijayanagara Empire: A powerful kingdom established in the 14th century in southern India by two brothers, Harihara and Bukka, who initially served under Muhammad bin Tughlaq but later rejected Delhi's authority. It became a strong centre of military power, culture, and trade in the Deccan region.
• Harihara and Bukka: Founders of the Vijayanagara Empire who took advantage of the weakening Delhi Sultanate to create an independent and influential kingdom.
• Hampi: The capital city of the Vijayanagara Empire, known for its grand temples, palaces, and markets. It was one of the largest and most prosperous cities of its time.
• Virūpākṣha Temple: A famous temple in Hampi, representing the architectural richness of the Vijayanagara period.
• Deccan Sultanates: Five states (Bijapur, Golconda, Berar, Ahmednagar, and Bidar) that emerged after the fragmentation of the Bahmani Sultanate and were rivals to the Vijayanagara Empire.
• Gajapati Kingdom: A kingdom located in Odisha that was frequently in conflict with the Vijayanagara Empire.
• Pati: A term meaning 'lord' or 'master' used in royal titles during this period, such as 'Gajapati', 'Narapati' (Vijayanagara kings), and 'Ashwapati' (Bahmani rulers).

Krishnadevaraya

• Krishnadevaraya: The most famous and celebrated ruler of the Vijayanagara Empire in the 16th century, known for his military victories, cultural patronage, and governance.
• Military Expansion: Under Krishnadevaraya, the empire reached its greatest size and secured dominance over rival kingdoms in the Deccan.
• Cultural Renaissance: He supported poets and scholars in the Sanskrit, Telugu, and Kannada languages, fostering a golden age of literature and arts.
• Āmuktamālyada: An epic poem composed by Krishnadevaraya in Telugu, telling the story of the Tamil poet-saint Andāl and outlining ideas of good governance (Rājanīti).
• Temple Grants: Krishnadevaraya provided funds and land to many temples, including important ones like Tirupati and the Vitthala temple in his capital.
• Vitthala Temple: Known for its exquisite architecture and musical pillars that produce sounds when struck, showcasing the artistic achievements under Krishnadevaraya.
• Foreign Trade: The empire actively engaged with foreign traders, especially the Portuguese, who were treated well and traded valuable horses to the empire.
• Domingo Paes: A Portuguese traveller who wrote detailed accounts of Vijayanagara, describing its size, prosperity, gardens, water systems, and bustling markets.
• Battle of Talikota (1565): A decisive defeat for the Vijayanagara Empire by the combined forces of the Deccan Sultanates, leading to the destruction of the empire’s capital city and its eventual decline.
• Nayakas: Former military governors who ruled smaller, fragmented regions after the empire’s decline post-Talikota.

The Mughals

• Mughal Empire: A large empire established in India by Babur in 1526 after defeating Ibrahim Lodi at the First Battle of Panipat. It was known for its military strength, administrative reforms, cultural achievements, and blend of different traditions.
• Babur: The founder of the Mughal Empire, a Turkic-Mongol ruler from Central Asia who appreciated India's wealth and decided to build an empire there. Despite being cultured, he was a ruthless conqueror who used gunpowder weapons.
• Humayun: Babur's son, who struggled to maintain control of the empire but was later helped by Sher Shah Suri, who briefly took over.
• Sher Shah Suri: An Afghan ruler who displaced Humayun temporarily and introduced important reforms before the Mughals regained power.
• Himu (Hemchandra Vikramaditya): A military commander under the Suri regime who briefly captured Delhi but was defeated by Akbar.

Akbar

• Akbar: Declared emperor at the young age of 13, he expanded the Mughal Empire across almost all of the Indian subcontinent through a mix of military strength and political diplomacy.
• Conquests: Akbar led military campaigns to capture forts and territories, including the long siege of Chittorgarh Fort, known for the Rajput resistance and acts of 'jauhar' (mass self-sacrifice by women to avoid capture).
• Jauhar: A heroic act by Rajput women who chose to end their lives by self-immolation to protect their honour when faced with Mughal invasion.
• Political Strategy: Unlike earlier rulers who relied mostly on military might, Akbar used marriage alliances, welcomed regional leaders into his court, and abolished the jizya tax to promote peace.
• Sulh-i-kul: Meaning 'peace with all,' this was Akbar’s policy of religious tolerance and respect for all faiths, promoting harmony in his empire.
• House of Translation: Akbar established a centre where many important Indian texts in Sanskrit were translated into Persian to promote cultural understanding.
• Abul Fazl: Akbar’s court historian and biographer who documented his reign and policies.

Aurangzeb

• Aurangzeb: Akbar’s great-grandson, known for his long reign of nearly 49 years, during which the Mughal Empire reached its greatest territorial expansion but faced frequent rebellions.
• Religious Policies: Aurangzeb was a strict Sunni Muslim who reversed many of Akbar’s tolerant policies. He reimposed the jizya tax on non-Muslims and destroyed many temples and religious institutions of Hindus, Jains, Sikhs, and others.
• Military Campaigns: He spent much of his reign fighting wars in the Deccan region, which drained the empire’s treasury and weakened its administration.
• Political Motives: Some historians argue that Aurangzeb’s harsh religious policies were also political strategies to strengthen his control over the empire.
• Aurangzeb’s Farmans: Official decrees issued by Aurangzeb ordering the destruction of non-Muslim religious schools and places of worship.
• Final Years: Aurangzeb expressed regret and helplessness in his last letters, showing the heavy toll his rule took on him personally and on the empire.

Resistance to the Mughals

Surge of the Rajputs

• Rajputs: Warrior clans in northwest India, proud of their traditions; they often fought against invading forces from outside the subcontinent to protect their kingdoms.
• Pratiharas: An earlier Rajput dynasty known for resisting Arab invasions centuries before the Mughal period.
• Mewar and Marwar: Two major Rajput regions that produced strong clans who resisted Mughal domination.
• Rana Kumbha: A brave Rajput ruler of Mewar, famous for defending his kingdom against many invasions during the 15th century.
• Rana Sanga: A Rajput leader in the early 16th century who united several Rajput clans and won many battles, but was defeated by Babur.
• Maharana Pratap: A legendary Rajput ruler of Mewar who refused to accept Mughal rule and fought guerrilla warfare against them from the Aravalli hills.
• Haldighati (1576): A famous battle between Maharana Pratap's forces and the Mughal army; though outnumbered, Maharana Pratap escaped and continued resistance.
• Guerrilla Warfare: A style of fighting using surprise attacks and knowledge of the local terrain, often employed by smaller groups like Maharana Pratap’s forces to fight bigger armies.
• Bhils: A tribal community that strongly supported Maharana Pratap by serving as archers and guides, using their knowledge of the terrain.
• Rajput Alliances: While some Rajput states allied with the Mughals through diplomacy and marriage, others, especially Mewar, remained independent and resistant.

The Ahoms

• Ahoms: An ethnic group that migrated from present-day Myanmar and established a kingdom in the Brahmaputra Valley in Northeast India.
• Paik System: A unique system where every able-bodied man had to provide labour or military service in exchange for land rights, helping the Ahom kings build infrastructure and maintain a large defence force without a permanent army.
• Assam: The region ruled by the Ahoms, known for its dense forests, hills, and rivers, which aided their defence strategies.
• Lachit Borphukan: A famous Ahom military commander who led the Ahom army during the Battle of Saraighat.
• Battle of Saraighat (1671): A decisive battle in which the Ahoms, using guerrilla tactics and knowledge of the terrain, defeated a much larger Mughal force on the Brahmaputra River.
• Territorial Independence: The Ahoms successfully preserved their independence against Mughal expansion due to their military skill and geography.

The Rise of the Sikhs

• Sikhism: A religion founded by Guru Nanak in the 15th-century Punjab, teaching equality, compassion, and the belief in one God (Ik Onkar).
• Guru Nanak: The first Sikh Guru, who spread the message of peace and equality.
• Persecution under Mughals: Sikh Gurus faced growing intolerance and persecution, particularly under Mughal Emperor Jahangir and later Aurangzeb.
• Guru Arjan: The fifth Sikh Guru, who was tortured to death by Jahangir for supporting a rebellious prince, leading to Sikh militarisation.
• Guru Hargobind: The sixth Sikh Guru, who formed a Sikh army to defend against Mughal attacks.
• Guru Tegh Bahadur: The ninth Sikh Guru who was executed by Aurangzeb for protecting religious freedom, becoming a martyr.
• Guru Gobind Singh: The tenth Sikh Guru, who established the Khalsa, a martial brotherhood devoted to justice, equality, and protecting the faith.
• Khalsa: The Sikh community of baptised warriors formed to defend justice, equality, and Sikhism.
• Gurudwara Sis Ganj Sahib: A gurdwara in Delhi marking the site of Guru Tegh Bahadur’s martyrdom, honoured annually by the Sikh Regiment.
• Maharaja Ranjit Singh: The leader who united Sikh confederacies into a powerful Sikh Empire in the early 19th century, known for military skill and religious tolerance.

Administering India

Administration under the Delhi Sultanate

• Sultan: The ruler of the Delhi Sultanate who had absolute political and military authority, responsible for protecting the empire and managing affairs.
• Council of Ministers: A group of officials who helped the Sultan govern by managing different departments like finance, military, and public affairs.
• Iqta System: A system where the Sultan gave land to nobles called iqtadars to collect taxes from that land. After paying their expenses, the rest was sent to the Sultan’s treasury. This system helped maintain the army.
• Iqtadars: Nobles assigned land under the iqta system; they were responsible for collecting taxes and maintaining soldiers, but their positions were not inherited by their children.
• Taxation: Taxes were imposed on trade and agriculture, with the peasantry bearing the heaviest burden. Some accounts mention harsh conditions in tax collection.

The Mughal administrative framework

• Akbar's Reforms: Akbar reorganised the administration to make it more efficient and centralised under the control of the central government.
• Diwan: The minister in charge of the empire’s finances.
• Mir Bakhshi: The officer responsible for military affairs.
• Khan-i-Saman: The official in charge of public works, trade, industry, agriculture, and the royal household.
• Sadr: The minister responsible for justice, religious, and educational matters.
• Provinces (Subahs): The empire was divided into twelve provinces, each ruled by officials who managed administration with checks and balances.
• Village Governance: Traditional local self-governance structures continued to function within villages.
• Mansabdari System: A system introduced by Akbar where officers called mansabdars were assigned a rank (mansab) and were responsible for maintaining a fixed number of troops, elephants, horses, and camels for the empire.
• Jagirs: Lands assigned to mansabdars as payment. Mansabdars were also called jagirdars.
• Regular Inspections: To ensure that mansabdars fulfilled their military duties, inspections were carried out frequently.
• Religious Minorities in Administration: Even though Akbar promoted tolerance, non-Muslims were a minority in high government posts, and officials of foreign Muslim origin were often preferred.
• Todar Mal: Akbar’s finance minister, who improved the revenue system by surveying crop yields and prices, helping to increase state revenue.

People's Lives

• Economic Activity: Despite frequent changes in political power between the 13th and 17th centuries, India continued to have lively economic activity. This was because of its strong agricultural base, skilled artisans, community and temple-based economies, and wide trade networks.
• Guilds and Communities: Groups like shreṇis (guilds of craftsmen and traders) and jātis (professionally defined communities) played important roles in organising economic life and maintaining quality and trust in trades.
• Infrastructure Development: During the Sultanate and Mughal periods, there were improvements in infrastructure such as roads, bridges, canals, and irrigation systems, helping increase agricultural productivity and trade.
• Currency: Coins of different metals and denominations were introduced, with the Mughals using a system of silver rupaya and copper dam.
• Agriculture: It was the backbone of the economy, with rulers collecting land revenue, typically about one-fifth of the produce, sometimes increasing to one-half. Irrigation expansion allowed farmers to grow multiple crops.
• Crops and Products: Food crops included rice, wheat, barley, pulses, and sugarcane. Non-food products included cotton for textiles, silk, wool, dyes, timber, and jute.
• Crafts and Trade: Craftspeople produced goods from weapons to utensils and jewellery. Shipbuilding developed to support river and overseas trade. Indian goods were exported via ports like Calicut, Mangalore, Surat, Masulipatnam, and Hooghly.
• Imports and Merchants: India mainly exported goods and imported silk, horses, metals, and luxury items. Merchants from Arabia, Persia, and Central Asia settled in Indian ports, enhancing trade.
• Hundi System: A financial system where merchants used written instructions called hundis to transfer money across regions without physically carrying coins, acting like an early form of banking.
• Temple Economy: Many temples acted as centres of worship, learning, social life, and economic hubs. Nobles donated lands and wealth to temples, which helped build irrigation, market infrastructure, and lodging for pilgrims. Temples also supported local and overseas trade by providing credit to merchants.
• Economic Stress: By the late 1600s, peasants often had little left after paying taxes and intermediaries. Many lost their land and became bonded labourers. Craftspeople and labourers also faced difficult conditions.
• Wealth Distribution: Although India was generally wealthy, much of the wealth was concentrated among rulers, courtiers, officials, and merchants. Frequent warfare caused displacement and hardships.
• Religious and Social Life: Despite occasional clashes over desecrated sacred sites, people of different faiths mostly lived peacefully and depended on each other economically.
• Cultural Resilience: Communities preserved and adapted their traditions while interacting with new influences, enriching India’s shared cultural heritage.