Economic Botany and Plant Breeding, Chapter Notes, Biology, Class 12, Part -2 PDF Download

CYBRID

Cybrids posses a nuclear genome from only one parent but cytoplasmic genes from both parents. The process of protoplast fusion resulting in the development of cybrid is known as cybridisation / cytoplasmic hybrids. 

Formation of cybrids : - Two methods

(i)   By fusion of nucleated protoplast of one parent to enucleated protoplast of another protoplast.

(ii)  By elimination of one nucleus form heterokaryon.

Use of Cybrids :   In plant cell some genetic factors are also present in cytoplasm. During cybridisation these factors fused together and perform cytoplasmic inheritance.

eg. (i)  Streptomycin resistant gene is transfer from Nicotiana tabacum to N.silvestrise.

(ii)  Gene of male sterility is transferred in Nicotiana, Brassica and Petunia from one-another.

APPLICATION OF PLANTLETS PRODUCED BY PLANT TISSUE CULTURE

(I)  Rapid clonal propagation of superior lines ⇒ e.g. oil palm

Clone : Group of individuals or cells derived from a single individual or cell by asexual reproduction.

Multiplication of genetically identical copies of a cultivar by asexual reproduction is called clonal propagation or cloning or micro propagation.

All the cells in culture are derived from a single explant by mitotic division, so all plantlets regenerate from a  culture generally, have the same genotype and constitute a clone. These plantlets can be used for rapid clonal propagation of superior lines like oil palm.

Two common types of micro propagation are :

(a) Multiple shootlet production

(b)  Somatic embryogenesis

(II) Somaclonal variation : Genetic variation presents among plants regenerated from tissue culture have been termed as somaclonal variation.

These variations originated by minor chromosomal aberration or by gene mutation.

The variation which are stable and have agronomic characters like resistance to diseases and pests, stress tolerance, early maturation, better yields are used in agriculture.

By somaclonal variations many useful varieties are developed.

Rusts resistance in wheat.

Resistance for tungro virus and leaf hopper in rice.

Resistance for late blight in potato.

High protein content in potato.

Shortening of harvest duration in sugarcane.

(III) To produce transgenic plants :

Transgene : A foreign gene that is transferred in to an organism by genetic engineering.

Transgenic plant/organism ⇒ plant/organism that contains and expresses a transgene. The cells containing and expressing transgenes can be easily selected in vitro and valuable plants can be regenerated from these cells.

NEW AND UNDER UTILIZED CROPS

1. Out of 3,50,000 known plants at this time, a few i.e about 100 plants are being used for fulfilling man's daily requirement.

2. Less known and under-utilized crop plants, which can be used for food and other purposes in future are known as new crops.

(i)   Triticale (Muntzing) :- It is the first man made cereal crop, which has been produced by intergeneric hybridization between common wheat (Triticum aestivum) and European rye (Secale).

Triticale is hexaploid (When tetraploid wheat is used) or Octa ploid (when hexaploid wheat is used)

Triticale is not suitable for purpose of bread making because of low gluten content, but it is a good forage crop.

(ii)  Winged bean : (Psophocarpus tetragonoloba) :This is a herbaceous plant, which has capacity of nitrogen fixation. It produces long pods with four prominent wings (So named winged bean)

The tuberous roots, leaves, pods and seeds are highly nutritious due to rich source of proteins.

The ripened seeds contain about 34% proteins and 13% oils (similar to soyabean)

This plant can be used as a green manure plant, fodder plant.

(iii) Jojoba = (Simmondsia chinensis) :     This is a shrub, which is native of Mexican deserts. It is important desert plant and hence is being grown in deserts.

The seeds of this plant contain about 50% liquid wax, which is similar to sperm whale oil (spermaceti)

This liquid wax was originally used in cosmetic, but now is also being used in high-performance lubricants required to withstand extreme pressures.

So growing of this plant, can reduce the pressure on sperm whales, which are killed for their oil.

Jojoba can thrive under poor soil and low moisture conditions. Its cultivation in arid regions of the world help in economic development of the poor.

(iv) Guayule = (Parthenium argentatum) : It belongs to family Asteraceae.

This is the native of America.

This plant commonly known as ''Congress grass''. It is a terrestrial weed in India.

This plant is a shrub and can grown on poor desert soil.

This plant is now days used in obtaining rubber, which is called ''Guayule rubber''.

Guayule rubber is similar to Para rubber or hevea rubber.

The plant contains 12-20% rubber on dry weight basis.

This plant can be a natural source of rubber in future.

(v)  Leucaena or Subabul :- Leucaena leucocephala (fam. leguminosae)

This is a fast growing leguminous tree and native of Central America.

This plant is nowadays being planted on a large scale under ''social forestry''

This plant is used as wind breakers, fire breaker, shade plant for deforested tropical regions.

It's leaves are used as fodder, wood as fuel and in charcoal formation, paper pulp, rayon and timber.

OTHER UNDER UTILIZED CROPS

(a)  Oil plants :- Some potential oil yielding plants are there, which provide edible and non edible oils after suitable treatments. Some potential oil crops are as follow :-

(i)   Margossa or neem :- Azadiracta indica (fam. meliaceae)

It is native of Burma and is widely grown tree in India. Seeds are source of margossa or neam oil with bitter taste, used in soap making.

(ii)  Buffalo gourd (Cucurbita foetidissima) seeds of this plant provide oil.

(iii) Bitter colocynth (Citrullus colocynthis) seeds give oil.

(iv) Mahua (Madhuca indica) :- seeds give oil, used in soap making and also cooking purposes

(v)  Pilu (Salvadora persica), Brihath pilu (S. oleoides) sal (Shorea robusta), karanj (Pongamia pinnata) seeds of all these plant give oil.

(b)  Some non-alcoholic beverages (less known) :-

(i)   Mate or Paraguay tea :- Leaves of Ilex paraguariensis

(ii)  Cola :- Powdered seed of Cola nitida

(iii) Khat or Arabian tea-From leaves of Catha edulis

(c)  Fodder trees :-

(i)   Acacia nilotica (kikar or Babul)

(ii) Albizzia lebbec (siris)

(iii) Ficus religiosa (Peepal)

(iv) Morus alba (white mulberry)

(v) Sesbania grandiflora (Basna)

PESTICIDES

Pesticides are those substances, which are used to kill, control or repel pest.

Pests : Pests are the organisms (viz-disease causing microbes, insects, mites, nematodes and weeds) those cause harm to human interests by destroying the agricultural crop, storage of plant products as well as bring about diseases in domestic animal and beings.

Pests cause loss in agricultural productivity up to about 30%.

Type of Pesticide :

Classification of Pesticides [On the basis of chemical structure]:

Mode of action of pesticides 

1. Most of the herbicides have affected on photosystem II^nd of photosynthesis (disturbing the photolysis of water and oxygen evolution). Some herbicides block sieve tube i.e. disturb translocation of organic food.

2. Most of the insecticides kill insects by affecting their nervous system. Some insecticide arrest the respiratory system and kill the insects.

Advantages of pesticides

1. Increase in yield of food and other crop plants

2. Pesticides control vectors or carriers of different disease causing organism.

HARMFUL EFFECTS OF PESTICIDES

(1)  Environmental pollution : As pesticides are non selective in their mode of action, so these also kill useful organisms along with harmful organisms thus equilibrium state of ecosystem is disturb.

Excessive use of insecticide in crop, some time leads to decrease in productivity. Because pollinator insects are also killed.

(2)  As pesticides are poisonous or toxic, so cause serious health hazards.

(3)  Excessive and prolonged use of pesticides leads to resistance in pest. Hence high concentration of pesticides is to be used in controlling to these resistant pests; this effect is called ''Pesticide trademill''. Pesticide trademill leads to increase in LD₅₀ concentration of pesticides.

LD 50 (Lethal Dose 50) : It is the minimum concentration of pesticide which can kill 50% of total pest population

(4)  Due to their non biodegradable nature their concentration increases in the body of organism of successive trophic level, with the rise in trophic level is called biomagnification or bioconcentration

Most organochlorines are fat soluble and undergo biomagnification.

In India as a result of prolonged use of DDT, 13-31 ppm of DDT can be detected in the body fat of people. (highest in world)

Development of resistance to pesticides

When pesticides are sprayed, some pest individuals having :

(i)   Less permeable cuticle

(ii)  Capability of faster storage of toxin in fat.

(iii) Better enzyme equipment for metabolising the toxin.

So due to above reason pest individuals develop resistance to pesticide.

INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT

It is technique of pest control, which involves natural methods to a greater extent.

IPM involves use of different pest control method, which are ecologically sound i.e. do not cause hazards to environment. A complex system of check and balances and use of different methods to kept the pest population at manageable level and loss by pest at minimum level known as IPM

eg. Biological control method. better agricultural practices like-crop rotation, sanitation, use of resistant varieties, etc.

BIOFERTILIZER

Fertilizers are used to increase soil fertility.

Among the sixteen essential plant nutrients, N,P,K are deficient in Indian soil

Fertilizers, which contain only one primary nutrient are called straight fertilizer or simple fertilizer.
eg. Urea, Mono ortho pottash (Mop)

Fertilizers, which contain two or more primary nutrient are called compound or multinutrient fertilizers. eg. Di-ammonium phosphate, N:P:K etc.

Use of chemical fertilizers increase food production, but side by side there are many hazardous effect of these chemical substance on environment and organisms. Chemical fertilizers are highly expensive.

Excessive use of chemical fertilizer requires more number of irrigation which leads to increase in salinity of soil.

Use of fertilizers of biological origin is an alternative for overcoming the harmful effects of these chemical fertilizers-

Fertilizers of biological origin.

They are two types :-

(A) Manures    (B) Biofertilizers.

(A) Manures :-

Manure is semi-decayed organic matter, which is added to the soil in order to increase soil fertility, aeration and water holding capacity.

Three types of manures

(i) Farmyard manure : This type of manure consisting of cattle dung, farm refuse, fallen leaves and twigs. These materials are placed in heaps and allowed to decompose till they form a dark amorphous substance. e.g.  Product of gobar gas plant.

(ii) Composited manure (Compost) : This manure consist of rotten vegetable matter, sewage sludge and animal refuse. Some chemical fertilizers added in small amount.

(iii) Green manure : These are fast growing herbaceous crops, which are ploughed down and mixed with the soil, while still green. These provide both organic matter and nitrogen to
the soil.

The green manure check ''soil erosion'' by forming protective soil cover and also prevent leaching of minerals.

Green manures increase crop yield by 30-50%

Some important green manure crops, which are mostly members of family leguminosae are as follow-

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- Strategies for Enhancement in Food Production, class 12, biology

(B) Biofertilizers :- These are the organism like bacteria, blue green algae and fungi (mycorrhiza) which enrich the soil in nutrients. Some important biofertilizers are :-

(1)  Bacteria as biofertilizers :-

(a)  Symbiotic nitrogen fixing bacteria :

''Rhizobium leguminosarum'' : bacteria lives symbiotically in root nodules of legumes. In root nodules Rhizobium fixes atmospheric nitrogen in the presence of red pigment ''leghaemoglobin''.

Presence of phosphorus, is essential for nitrogen fixation

One legume plant “Sesbania rostrata'' has double symbiotic relationship with nitrogen fixing bacteria → Rhizobium in the root nodules and ''Aerorhizobium caulinodans'' in stem nodules

Frenkia, a nitrogen fixing filamentous bacterium associated symbiotically with the root nodules of non-legume plants like Casurina, Rubus, Alnus myrica.

(b)  Free-living nitrogen fixing bacteria :

Some bacteria like Azotobacter (aerobic) Clostridium (anaerobic), Beijerinckia (aerobic) are free living nitrogen fixing bacteria of soil, which increase fertility of soil.

Bacillus polymyxa is another example of free living nitrogen fixing bacterium.

(c)  Loose association of nitrogen fixing bacterium :

A bacterium ''Azospirillum lipoferum'' forms loose association with roots of maize and Brazilian grasses, which increase crop yield (Dobriner).

(2)  Blue green algae (Cyanobacteria) as biofertilizers :

(a)  Free living nitrogen fixing BGA :

Blue green algae like Anabaena, Aulosira, Tolypothrix, Plectonema are most common nitrogen fixing organism.

Blue green algae fixes Nitrogen with the help of ''heterocyst''.

Photosynthesis provides the energy for nitrogen fixation.

''Aulosira fertilissima'' is the most active nitrogen fixer of rice field.

(b)  Symbiotic Nitrogen fixing cyanobacteria :

Azolla pinnata is a small aquatic fern inoculated to rice field of South-East Asian countries. It's leaf cavities contain symbiotic BGA-Anabaena, Nostoc, Oscillatoria.

A. pinnata is best biofertilizer for rice. Farmers have reported 50%-higher yield of rice by using A.pinnata.  

(3)  Fungi as biofertilizer :-

(i)   Mycorrhiza :- Symbiotic association between roots of higher plant and fungal hypae is called mycorrhiza. It is of two types

(a)  Ectotrophic or ectomycorrhiza :- Fungal hypae are present on the surface of root, It increases water and nutrient absorption, growth & yield of plant.

e.g Found in Pinus, Oak, Eucalyptus. Hebeloma, Laccaria, Pisolithus are fungi which formed ectomycorrhiza.

(b)  Endotrophic or Endomycorrhiza :- Fungal hyphae are present inside or between the cells of cortex. It occur in coffee, pepper, cardamom. Glomus, Gigaspora, Sclerocystis are fungi which formed endomycorrhiza.

In many grasses and orchid the fungal hyphae penetrate to the cortical cells, which swell to form vesicles or arbuscules. So it is called Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhiza (VAM).

It has significant role in phosphate nutrition of plants.

ECONOMIC BOTANY

CEREALS :

These are the members of family Gramineae and grown for their edible seeds.

(1) Wheat (Triticum aestivum) : - Wheat is the chief cereal used by man as food from ancient times. It is an annual grass and the inflorescence is a terminal spike consisting of 15-20 spikelets. The important varieties of wheat, grown in India are Kalyan sona, Sonalika, Sharbati Sonara, Lerma Rojo, Sonara 64 etc.

(2)  Maize(Zea mays) : - It is the second important cereal crop. Maize is a tall annual grass with height of 4 to 10 feet ; plants are monoecious. In India common varieties grown are Sona, Vijay, Jawahar, Vivek-8, Amber etc. The maize grains are very nutritious ; they contain high percentage of easily digestible carbohydrates, proteins and fats; the grains are also used in the manufacture of corn starch, glucose and alcohol ; also used as a chief food for livestock ; the fibre from stem and spathe is used in paper industry.

(3)  Rice (Oryza sativa) – Rice is the principal food crop of millions of peoples of the world. The rice plant is an annual grass having a height of 2-4 feet and produces a panicle, an inflorescence consisting of a number of fine branches. It grows best on damp soils, where it can be flooded . The rice grains are used as a food after cooking ; stem, husk etc. are used as fodder ; grain is also used in the manufacture of alcoholic beverages.     

(4)  Sorghum (Sorghum vulgare) : Sorghum is staple food for millions of peoples in Asia and Africa. It is a tall annual plant with a height of 6-12 feet; the stem is stout and the panicle much-branched. The grains are made into flour often mixed with wheat, forming a nutritious food. The plants are used as fodder, in the manufacture of brushes, syrup and also in the paper industry.

(5)  Barley(Hordeum vulgare) : - Barley is an annual plant with a height of 3 feet. The inflorescence is a spike; the grains may be white, purple or red and are covered with husk. Barley is used in the preparation of bread, cakes after mixing it with wheat flour ; straw is used as a livestock feed ; also used as a source of malt, used in the manufacture of beer, whisky, alcohol etc.

(6)  Pearl millet or Bajra (Pennisetum typhoides) : - It is cultivated almost throughout India. The plants attains a height from 6-12 feet and the dark-brown spikes, 15-25 cm in length occur in clusters. It is an important food for poor people in our country ; the flour is used for making chapatis ; the plants are also used as fodder.  

PULSES :

(1)  Pea(Pisum sativum) : - It is grown all over India during winter months. The plant is an annual herb climbing by means of tendrils. The seeds are eaten after cooking as vegetable; plants are used as valuable fodder.

(2)  Gram(Chana)(Cicer arietinum) : - It is cultivated all over India as an important pulse. The plant is a bushy annual and matures in about three months. The seeds are eaten as dal and the flour which is commonly called as besan is used in the preparation of sweets and other foodstuffs; the plants and seeds are also used as cattle feed.

(3)  Pigeon pea or red gram (Arhar) (Cajanus cajan) – It is widely cultivated in India and is grown as a pure crop or mixed crop. The plant is a perennial shrub. Dry grains are used as dal; leaves form a valuable fodder. Branches are used for making baskets.

(4)  Ground nut (Moongphali) (Arachis hypogea) : The plant is a bushy annual with underground fruits. Groundnuts are very nutritious as they are rich in proteins. Seeds are used after roasting for preparation of peanut butter ; groundnut oil is largely used as cooking oil.

(5)  Black gram (Urd)(Phaseolus mungo) : It is the one of the best pulses grown all over India. The plant is a trailing annual. It is used as Dal ; flour is used in the preparation of papads and biscuits ; seeds and straw form a valuable cattle feed.

(6)  Soya-bean(Glycine max) : - The seeds of this plant are the protein richest, natural vegetable food known. It is cultivated all over India. The plant is a small, bushy, erect annual. It has 30-60% protein content. Seeds are used, green or dry; soya milk, soya cheese etc. are prepared from the seeds ; soyabean flour is used in bakery, icecream etc.

(7)  Green-gram (Moong) (Phaseolus aureus) : - It is cultivated as an important pulse crop in Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Bihar and Bengal. The green pods are eaten as vegetable and seeds are used as dal. The entire plant is used as cattle feed.

VEGETABLES :

Vegetables contain a large quantity of carbohydrates and mineral salts like calcium, iron, phosphorus, iodine etc. they are also rich in vitamins, therefore, are included in our daily diet. Some of the important vegetables are as follows : -

(1)  Potato (Solanum tuberosum-family solanaceae) : Main vegetable crop. It is an erect, branched annual ; tuber is modified stem, which have different shapes-round, oval and cylindrical ; it is a native of Peru (South America) and was first introduced in India by the Portuguese in the early part of the 17 century ; potato tubers are eaten as vegetable and in various other forms ; they are also used in the production of starch and industrial alcohol.

(2)  Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum family Solanaceae) : - It is a native of South Asia ; it is cultivated in warm countries for its fruits, which are used as vegetable. Tomatoes are also used in the preparation of ketchup, sauce, soup and juice.

(3)  Brinjal (Solanum melongena-family solanaceae) : - It is an erect, branched, annual herb, fruit is large, ovoid, purple or whitish berry ; it is a native of India. The fruits are eaten as vegetable.

(4)  Okra (Bhindi) (Abelmoschus esculentus –family Malvaceae) : - It is an annual herb with yellow crimson centred flowers ; it is grown in warm countries for its mucilaginous fruits ; it is a native of tropical Africa. The fruits are used as vegetables and also in soup.

(5)  Onion (Alium cepa- family Liliaceae) :  It is a native of South Asia. The food is stored in the bulb; bulbs of onion are popular as vegetable and are also used for flavouring and pickling. The leaves are also eaten as vegetable.

SUGAR :

(1)  Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) : - It belongs to family Gramineae and is the chief source of sugar in India. The plant reaches a height of 6 to 12 feet and a diameter of 1 to 2 inches ; the stem is solid with many fibrous strands and contains juice ; the stems are cut close to the ground and are then sent sugar mills for the extraction of sugar. Molasses is used in the manufacture of rum and industrial alcohol.

(2)  Sugar-beet (Beta vulgaris) : It belongs to family chenopodiaceae and is the source of sugar in cold countries. The sugar-beet is a biennial herb with tap root. Sugar is extracted from the fleshy roots which contain 15-20% of sucrose.

FIBRES :

(1)  Cotton (Gossypium sp.-family malvaceae) : Cotton is the most important commercial textile fibres. It is used for a variety of purposes, especially in the manufacture of a large proportion of the clothing. Fibres are produced by the seed coats of various species of gossypium. Fibres are also used for making ropes, twines and threads ; raw cotton is also used for stuffing pillows and cushions.

(2)  Jute (Corchorus capsularis and C.olitorius – family Tiliaceae) : - It is a very valuable bast fibre and is second in use to cotton. The fibres are extracted by the process of retting in which the branches of plants are dipped in water for few days ; after retting fibres are separated. Jute fibres are used for making gunny bags, packing cloth, carpets, cordage, curtains etc.

(3)  Sunn hemp (Crotolaria juncea-family papilionaceae) : The plants are extensively cultivated in India. The long fibrous strands are made up of lignified phloem sclerenchymatous cells, which are obtained after retting. The fibres are used in manufacture of ropes, canvas, nets, cordages etc.

(4)  Flax (Linum usitatissimum-family Linaceae) : The fibres are very strong, silky, short in length and are formed in the pericycle of the stem. Flax fibres are used in the manufacture of linen cloth, carpets, canvas, cigarette paper, insulating materials etc.

(5)  Hemp (Cannabis sativa – family cannabinaceae) : The fibres are obtained from the pericycle after retting. The hemp fibres are long, strong and durable but lacks flexibility. It is used for the manufacture of ropes, cables, nets, canvas etc.

(6)  Munj (Saccharum munja-family Gramineae) : The fibres is obtained from the stem. It is used for making chair, tables, baskets, mats and ropes,

(7)  Coir (Cocos nucifera-Family palmae) : It is obtained from the fibrous mesocarp of the fruit ; the fruits are dipped in marine water for many months and then beaten to separate the fibres. Coir is used for making brushes, doormats, carpets, sacs, bags, cordage etc.

OILS :

(1)  Groundnut oil is obtained from the seeds of Arachis hypogea-Family Papilionaceae; refined oil is used in cooking and oil is converted into vegetable ghee by hydrogenation.

(2)  Gingelly or sesame oil is obtained form the seeds of Sesamum indicum- family Pedaliaceae ; oil is used in cooking, medicine, soap etc.

(3)  Coconut oil is obtained from the dry kernel of the seed of Cocos nucifera-family Palmae ; oil is used for cooking, hair oil and in the manufacture of soaps, shampoo, cosmetics etc.

(4)  Mustard oil is obtained from the seeds of Brassica campestris- family cruciferae ; oil is chiefly used for cooking purposes.

(5)  Castor oil is obtained from the seeds of Ricinus communis-family euphorbiaceae ; oil is used in medicines, as lubricant and also in making soaps.

(6)  Soyabean oil is obtained from the seeds of Glycine max-family Papilionaceae ; raw oil is used in the manufacture of soap, varnishes, paints etc, ; refined oil is  used for cooking purposes.

(7)  Linseed oil is obtained from the seeds of Linum usitatissimum-family Linaceae ; oil is used in making paints, varnishes, soaps etc.

TIMBER :

(1)  Indian Redwood (Sesham) (Dalbergia sisso- family Papilionaceae) : The wood is dark-brown in colour and is very strong and durable. It is used for making good quality furniture, carts, boats, etc.

(2)  Teak (Tectona grandis-family verbenacea) – It is the most important wood as it is extremely durable. It is used for making best quality furniture, houses, ship-building, for bridges, railway sleepers etc.

(3)  Deodar (Cedrus deodara – family Pinaceae) : - The wood is light, extremely durable, yellowish-brown in colour. It is used for house, building bridges, railway sleepers, light furniture etc.

(4)  Sal (Shorea robusta-Family Dipterocarpaceae) : - The timber is very hard, heavy, strong and very durable. The wood is of brown colour and is used for beams, furniture, carts, bridges, railway sleepers etc.

(5)  Mahogany (Swietenia mahogoni-family Meliaceae) – It is a valuable timber tree. The wood is very hard and durable and is used for, making boats, ships, furniture etc.

(6)  Toon (Cedrella toona-family Meliaceae) – The timber is very light and is used for making furniture, houses, packing boxes etc.

(7)  Mango (Mangifera indica-family Meliaceae) – The wood is strong, slightly lighter and gray or grayish-brown in colour. It is used for door and window frames, packing cases and tea boxes.

BEVERAGES :

(1)  Tea (Thea sinensis or Camellia sinensis-family Theaceae) : It is the most popular beverage ; Prepared from the dried leaves of this plant. The plant is now cultivated in China, India, Pakistan, Japan, Ceylon, England and Indonesia. The tea plant is a shrub of 3-4 feet high. The tea leaves are picked by hand which are processed for obtaining different grades of tea leaves.

(2)  Coffee (Coffea Arabica and C.robusta-family Rubiaceae) : Seeds of these plants are the sources of  coffee. The seeds are dried in sun or by artificial heat and then roasted to develop flavour, aroma and colour.Coffee plant is a shrub or small tree 16 to 25 feet high. Main coffee plantations are in the hill slopes of South India – Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil nadu. It is a favourite drink all over India particularly south India.

(3)  Cocoa (Theobroma cocoa-family Sterculiaceae) – It is prepared from the seeds of this plant. The beans roasted in iron drums at a temperature of 125ºC to 140ºC. The seeds are finally ground to and oily paste to form the bitter chocolate. Sweet chocolate is made by adding sugar to the bitter chocolate. Cocoa tree is a native of tropical Central and South America.

RUBBER :

Rubber is obtained from the latex of Hevea brasiliensis-family Euphorbiaceae, which is the main source of commercial rubber. The latex is collected by tapping the bark, which is processed for obtaining final rubber. It is used as tyres, tubes, rubber sheets, insulation of electric wires etc. The majority of rubber plantations are in Kerala,Tamil Nadu and Karnataka.

ECONOMIC BOTANY-AT A GLANCE……

Basmati rice is mainly cultivated in U.P. and Haryana in India.

The millets were the first cereals to be domesticated.

Highest cultivation and production of cotton takes place in China, 2^nd → USA, 3^rd → India. In India it is max cultivated in Gujarat.

Highest cultivation and production of jute fibre is in West Bengal of India. India is the largest producer of jute.

Brazil is the largest producer country of sugar cane. 2^nd → India

About 80% of sugarcane of India is grown in North India (mainly in U.P.)

India produces about 90% of gram (Chick pea) of the world.

China is largest producer of groundnut (China > India)

Richest plant food-Soyabean [36.5% protein, 17.5% fat]

Largest wheat producing country is European Union.

Botanical name of Pop-corn- Zea mays var. everta.

Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute is located at Jhansi.

The principal cereal crop in India is-Rice.

Botanical name of Indian rye-Brassica juncea.

Centre of origin of rice-India. [South-East Asia.]

RR-21 is high yielding variety of wheat.

Cereals are major source of carbohydrate.

Margarine' is prepared from Groundnut.

Sugarcane Breeding Research Institute (SBRI) is situated at coimbatore.

Fish net is prepared from Linum usitatissimum.

The largest fibre crop of East India is-Jute.

Jute Agriculture research institute (JARI) is situated at Barrackpore (west bengal)

Commercial jute is morphologically bast fibre.

Largest newspaper industry is situated at Nepanagar.

Long fibres of cotton seeds are known as lint.

The coir industry in India is concentrated in Kerala.

‘Gingelly oil’ or ‘Til oil’ is obtained from the seeds of Sesamum indicum.

In ground nut (Arachis hypogea), oil is stored in cotyledons.

Essential oils are those which are used in perfumes

Highest sugarcane crop is grown in the world in Brazil. 2^nd → India.

Industrial toxicology research centre situated at Lucknow.

‘Metha Jahar’ which is useful in rheumatism is obtained from Aconitum napellus.

Chhattisgarh is also known as ‘Dhann Ka Katora’.

Central Drug Research Institute is situated at Lucknow.   

Isbgol is obtained from seeds of Plantago ovata.

LSD is obtained from Claviceps.

IARI, New Delhi is main centre of wheat breeding and research in India.

Centre of origin of arhar/pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) is south-east Asia.

Centre of origin of groundnut is Brazil.

Rabi crops are those, which grows in winter eg-wheat, Gram, Barley.

Kharif crops are those, which grows in summer eg-Maize, Bajra, Moong.   

95% of the world crop of red gram (pigeon pea) is produced in India.

India is the largest producer of cardamon.

Oat (Avena sativa) is the most nutritious among all cereals, because of their high fat, protein and mineral contents.

Russian federation > Canada > USA leads the world in production of oats.

Urease enzyme is obtained from arhar/pigeon pea/ red gram/Cajanus cajan which is used in estimation of urea in urine and blood.

India is the largest exporter of jute and jute products. 

Jute is a bast fibre and obtained from the secondary phloem.

Max. Production of Tea-China > India.

Essential oils or volatile oils are those, which evaporate in contact with air and have a pleasant fragnance.

Banana (Musa paradisiaca sub sp-sapientum, fam-musaceae) : It is one of the oldest fruit called ‘Adam's fig’ and ‘apple of paradise’. Banana is the cheapest energy rich fruit having high content of carbohydrates, some fats and proteins.

Mango (Mangifera indica, fam-Anacardiaceae) : It is good source of vitamin A, C and K.

COAL & PETROLEUM PLANTS :

Chemically petroleum is a liquid of varying composition. Kerosene, gasoline, benzene and paraffin are some important petroleum products. Melvin Calvin was first to identify few petroleum plants - the plants whose products can be used in place of petrol and oil. Most of such plants belongs to families-asclepiadaceae, euphorbiaceae, and apocynaceae. These plants are able to convert a substantial amount of hydrocarbon into latex. Euphorbia lathyrus contains a mixture like terpene, which can be converted into gasoline.

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- Strategies for Enhancement in Food Production, class 12, biology

The branch of science in which study of medical plants is done known as Pharmacognosy.

Hippocrates is known as father of medicine. "Discorides" is known as father of pharmacognosy.

 1. CINCHONA OFFICINALIS

(i)    Hindi Name  – "Quinine" or "Jaisuitbark" or "Peruvian bark" or "Countess bark".

Cinchona officinalis is dicotyledon and belong to Rubiaceae family.

Distribution – This plant is mainly found in Peru country. Its many species are grown in India. Indonesia and Jawa Island. The maximum amount of quinine (medicine) obtains from C.lidgerina.

(ii)   Habit – This is medium size plant and perennial. The credit goes on "La-condamine" for discovery of this plant. The name of Cinchona was coined by "Linnaeus" on the name of Mrs. of Vice Roy of Peru Island – "Cinchon". This plant first time introduced inIndia from Jawa-Island by "Anderson".

(iii)  Source of Medicine – This quinine is obtains from the bark of plants of genus of cinshona. First of all bark removed from the stem, branches and root (mainly stem) during the rainy season. The bark almost contain approximately 25 type of alkaloids like Quinine, Quinidine. Cinchonine and Cinchonidine. The chemical formula of quinine is C₂₀H₂₄O₂N₂. The quinine is obtained in the form of quinine sulphate. All the alkaloids of Cinchona collectively known as "Totoquine".

(iv) Medicinal uses –

(i)    The maximum uses of quinine is for treatment of Malaria. It is effective on asexual stage – (schizont of malarial parasite).

(ii)   Quinine used in bacterial infection and pneumonia for their treatment because it is antibacterial.

(iii)  Its application is also effective in the infection of protozoans. It is used in ameobic dysentry.

(iv)  Quinine is "insects repellent". It uses for protection of costly clothes, fur and feathers.

(v)   Exclusing quinine, Quinidine used as "inhibit auricular stimulation" [cardiac depressant].

(v)   Quinine is also used for making hair lotion.

(v)   Precautions –

(i)    High-dose of quinine can causes "blindness", "deafness" and "giddiness".

(ii)   It should not be given to pregnant ladies and heart patient.

2. CURCUMA LONGA

"Haldi" or "Turmeric" This is of family zingiberaceae and monocotyledon plant.

(i)   Distribution  – The cultivation of turmeric is mainly in India & China. But now a days it is also grown in Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Indonesia and Peru.

(ii)   Habit – This is a perennial herbs which grows as under ground rhizomes.

(iii)  Source of Drug –

(i)    The medicine obtains from the under ground rhizomes.

(ii)   First of all rhizomes boil in water for 10-12 hours, then after dries in sun light. By this process, the yellow colour oozes from the secreting cells and spread over the all parts of rhizome.

(iv)  Composition of Drug  – This is a cellular and in the form of powder. Turmeric is a type of tissues. (It contains volatile oils. The main coloured alkaloids are curcumine and zingiberine. The volatile oil usually is umbelliferine.

(v)  Medicinal Uses –

(i)    Turmeric used as a carminative (digestive). it remove indigestion. It increase the secretion of bile juice.

(ii)   It is a tonic and stimulant.

(iii)  It used as in the form of antihelmintic.

(iv)  Its decoction is useful in cold and cough.

(v)   It is also used as blood purifier.

(vi)  It used with milk as pain killer for any type of injury. It also help in wound healing.

(vii) It used with milk as pain killer for any type of injury. It also help ion wound healing.

(viii) "Kumkum" which is the symbol's of Indian married woman's is formed from turmeric. When turmeric powder treated with concentrated sulphuric acid then it changed into red colour powder.

(ix)  There is no side effect of turmeric. It is used as spices

 3. FERULA ASAFOETIDA

"Hing" or "asafoetida" or "Devil's dung"

The family asafoetida is Umbelliferae or Apiaceae. It is dicotyledon plant. This plant is perennial herbs

(i)    Distribution  – It is extensively found in India, East Iran and West Afganistan. In India, only grown in velley of Kashmir.

(ii)   Source of Drug – This drug obtains from the root. If the roots cut from the base of the stem then it give more medicine. The resin like material come out from the cut. It becomes dark brown in colour after dryness. This is very bitter in taste and it has pungent smell. the cut is made on the root in the month of April before flowering.

(iii)  Composition of drug – Asafoetida is acellular oleogum resin. It contains carbon disulphide, Penine, Umbelliferine and Ferulic acid. Its pungent smell and bitter taste is only due to presence of carbon disulphide compound. It lack alkaloids.  

(v)   Medicinal Uses –

(i)    It used as a spasm releiver. It cure flatulent colic pain.

(ii)   It used in Cholera, whooping cough and Jaundice.

(iii)  It is used in the disease who is suffering by "fits" or Epilepsy.

(iv)  It is used in respiratory disease - bronchitis.

(v)   It help to remove worms from alimentary canal.

(vi)  It is used as spices in India

(vii) It is used to check abdominal swelling in the form of paste.

(viii) It is very useful medicine to remove constipation. [As powerful anticonstipation agent].

(ix)  It has no side effect.

 4. PAPAVER SOMNIFERUM

Common name – "Post", "Poppy", "Apheem"

This plant is dicotyledon of papaveraceae family.

(i)    Distribution  – It is extensively cultivated in India, Japan, China, Pakistan, Turkee and Iran. In India it is grown in district of Rajasthan such as Banswara, Jhalawar, Chittore; and Faizabad of Uttar Pradesh; Ratlam, Neemach and Mandsor in M.P. It is also known as "Black Gold". The cultivation of poppy is under the control of Government. The 70% of opium of world is cultivated in India.

(ii)   Habit – The plant is annual herb. The fruit is a capsule and persistant with stigma. The flowers are big, white, pink or red in colour.

(iii)  Source of Drug –  The drug obtains from the unriped capsule. The parallel cuts are marked on the capsule. From these cuts yellow coloured milk comes out. It is known as latex. When dries, it becomes dark brown or black in colour. This opium is bitter in taste and with smell. The cultivation of best quality or opium is in Mandsore district of Madhya Pradesh.

(iv)  Composition of Drug  – The drug is acellular latex. The latex of opium contains 25 types of alkaloids. Out of them the main alkaloids as follows –

Other alkalloids – The pseudomorphine, protopine cryptopine etc. narcotic substances obtain. Some of more dangerous substances obtain from the opium which have many times more effective than opium such as – Heroin or Diacetylemorphine.

(v)   Medicinal Uses –

(i)    Morphine is a effective and strong analgesic. It is extensively used in all type of pain like burning, fracture of bones, kidney pain etc. (Visceral pain)

(ii)   The opium has sedative action and induce sleep. It means it release all anxiety and bring a sound        sleep.

(iii)  Codeine used in cough and cold. It is an effective drug for cough.

(iv)  This drug is used for treatment of insomnia. All the alkaloids of opium have effect on central        nervous system.

(v)   It is used in dysentry.

(vi)  The paste of opium is used for piles.

(vii) It stops the possibility of abortion and it is also very useful to relieve the pain after the birth of child.

(viii) It is also very useful in ulcers and gastritis.

(vi) Side effects – The continuous use of opium a person becomes addictive and then after it has no effect. It reduce hunger and responsible for constipation. Chinese started a opium-war because there habitants were addicted.

(vii) Precaution – 

(i)    Opium should not be given to the child and old persons.

(ii)   The person should not taken those who are suffering by respiratory disease.

 5. RAUWOLFIA SERPENTINA

(i)    Common Name – "Sarp Gandha" or "Small Moon" or "Chnad Mukha" or "Serpent Root" or "Snake root". It is a dicotyledon plant of apocyanaceae family.

(ii)   Distribution  – It is naturally found in Burma, Pakistan, Jawa, Nepal and Thailand. It is distributed in Assam, Sikkim, Bihar and U.P. in India The name of this plant (Rauwolfia) coined by "Charles Pluminger" on a German Scientist – Leonard rauwolf.

(iii) Habit – It is perennial, erect bushes.

(iv)  Source of Drug –  It is usually obtains from the root with bark of the plant. First of all root taken with its bark after 2-3 years old plant. The roots are pungent and bitter in taste.

(iv)  Composition of Drug  – The drug obtains in form of cellular and powder. The root of Rauwolfia contains almost 70 types of alkaloids in which reserpine and serpentine is the main alkaloids. The other alkaloids are Ajmaline, Rauwolfine, Riscinnamine and Yohimbine etc. The chemical formula of Reserpine is C₃₃H₄₀N₂O₉. The first time reserpine extracted by Muller and Schitler from the plant. Reserpine is a most important drug.

(v)  Medicinal Uses –

(i)    Reserpine is used from ancient period for snake's biting, epilepsy, insanity and insomnia.

(ii)   Reserpine reduce high blood pressure. It decrease high blood pressure during hypertension.

(iii)  It is used to cure voice which is disturb due to drinking of alcohol.

(iv)  It is used to cease the effect of high madness (mental imbalance or Schizophrenia) it is also very        useful to release the fear and anger as well as reduced the excitement.

(v)   It is called as "medicine of insanity" in India.

(vi)  Reserpine increase the peristalsis movement and secretion of gastric juice.

(vii) The flow of blood increase in brain through the ajmaline. The juice of leaves of ajmaline removes the opacity of white region of eye.

(viii)  The effect of L.S.D. (Lysergic acid di-ethylamide) on central nervous system, decreased by reserpine.

(xi) It is used to stop the aggressive nature of wild animals.

(x)   It contract the uterus, so that it is used to stop the excess bleeding during birth.

(vii) Precautions –  This drug should not be given to patient of peptic ulcer, asthma and heart patients.