Chapter 3 - Ancient India (Part -2)- Notes, UPSC / IAS Exam | Art, Architecture and Literature by Shahid Ali PDF Download

 ANCIENT INDIA (Part -2)

3.9 POST - MAURYAN CULTURAL DEVELOPMENTS

Although the Greeks, Shakas, Parthians, and Kushanas were foreigners, they were slowly absorbed into the local population. Since they were warriors, the law givers assigned them the status of Kshatriyas. It should be noted that such a large scale assimilation of foreigners into the Indian society took place only in the post-Mauryan times. We can say roughly from about 200 BC to about 3^rd  century A.D. profound changes took place in the economic and political life and vital developments in different aspects of cultural life of our country i.e. religion, art and science as well as technology. There was a significant advancement in foreign trade both by land and by sea, besides emergence of various crafts.

Many foreign rulers adopted Vaishnavism. In the Besnagar Pillar incription, Heliodorus (the Greek ambassador of the Indo-Greek king Antialkidas) describes himself as a Bhagavata i.e. worshipper of Vishnu. Similarly some coins of Kanishka also show the  figure of Siva on them. You will recall that one of the Kushan rulers was called Vasudeva, clearly indicating his vaishnava faith. Do you know the importance attached to the year of Kanishka’s accession i.e. 78 A.D.. Well, it marks the beginning of the Saka era.

The interaction among different foreign ethnic groups and the Indians played an important role in their choice of one or the other Indian religions. Some foreign rulers also turned to Buddhism, as this did not create the problems of fitting into the caste system. Menander converted to Buddhism. Kanishka too is remembered for his services to this religion. However this increasing popularity of Buddhism brought about a major change in the religion. Buddhism in its original form was too abstract for the foreigners. They therefore advocated a simpler form through which they could satisfy their religious cravings. Around the same time Buddhism split into two schools: the Mahayana or the Great Wheel and the Hinayana or the Small Wheel. The former believed in image worship, rituals and Bodhisattvas, (incarnations of Buddha) while the latter continued the practices of the earlier Buddhism.

The Mahayana received royal patronage from Kanishka, who convened the fourth Buddhist Council to finalise its teachings. He also set up many stupas in memory of the Buddha.

Art and Sculpture

Central Asian invasions led to further development of Indian art and sculpture. Close contacts with the western world introduced many new forms in Indian art. The most significant development was the growth of the Gandhara school of art. This school borrowed features from both the Greek and Roman art forms. Many images of the Buddha from the Kushan period have Apollonian faces, their hair is in the Graeco-Roman style and their draperies arranged in the style of a Roman toga. This assimilation of artistic features was probably because many artisans from different countries trained in different schools came together under the Kushan rule.

Mathura, which was the centre of the indigenous school of art, was also influenced by the invasions. A number of images from here of terracotta and red sandstone, which have definite Saka-Kushan influence, have survived. The most famous is the headless statue of Kanishka from Mathura. While the earlier Buddhists had used only symbols to depict the Buddha, the Mathura school became the first to make faces and figures of the Buddha. Folklores such as the Jatakas were drawn out in long panels on rock faces. Besides the images of Buddha, which were made in large numbers, statues of Mahavira were also produced.

Deccan and South India

The Satavahanas in the Deccan held an important position under the Mauryas. After the death of Ashoka, they assumed total independence. They became very powerful and made their capital at Paithan or Pratisthan on the river Godavari. The Satavahanas soon entered into conflict with the foreign satraps, especially the Shakas. It was under  Gautamiputra and his son Vasishthiputra Satkarni that the Satavahanas became very powerful. They extended their kingdom, cleared forests, made roads and administered their State well. New towns came up and trade was carried on with far off countries like Persia, Iraq and Combodia.

Kharavela of Kalinga

Another kingdom which rose to a position of importance after the Mauryas was Kalinga. Kalinga included modern Orissa and parts of Northern Andhra. Its most important ruler was Kharavela. The Hathigumpha Inscription in a Jain cave at Udaigiri hills would give us a detailed account of his reign, but unfortunately it is not easily decipherable. It is definitely known that he was a graet administrator as well as a brave warrior. He carried out works of piety and public utility, like building roads and gardens.

South India

The area which lies to the south of the river Krishna and Tungabhadra is called South India. It was the region of the Cholas, Cheras and the Pandyas who were constantly at war with each other.

Sources

The main source of information about these kingdoms and the life of the people is the Sangam literature. That is why this period from the beginning of the Ist century B.C. to the end of 2nd century A.D. is called the Sangam period of the history of South India.

Cholas

Karikala was the most important ruler of this kingdom. He defeated the combined forces of the Cheras and the Pandays. He succeeded in pushing back an invasion from Ceylon. Karikala has been credited with many welfare activities.He got may canals dug so that water from the river Cauvery could be used for irrigation purposes. Karikala patronised works of literature and art. He was a follower of the Vedic religion.

Pandays

The Pandyan empire was founded by a woman king. She maintained a huge army. She also encouraged trade and patronised art as well as literature.

Life and Culture

The people during this period lived a simple life. They were fond of music, dancing and poetry. Many musical instruments like drums, flutes, pipes, etc. were popular.

Most of the people lived in valleys and a majority of them were farmers. Others were herdsmen. There were artisans and craftsmen also who mainly lived in towns. There were merchants specially in the coastal areas and trade was carried on by sea.  

Society

The Greeks, Kushanas, Shakas and Parthians were called Yavanas. They soon merged with the Indian society and adopted Indian names and inter-married. Even their coins started carrying the images of Indian gods like Vishnu, Ganesha and Mahesha. The fact that they had adapted to the Indian society easily may explain why foreign rulers patronised Buddhism.

The Age of Harshvardhana

King Harshvardhana decided that he must subdue the petty warring rulers and bring them under his domain. He devoted six important years of his life to do so. Hiuen Tsang, a Chinese traveller and Bana Bhat, his court poet, have given detailed accounts of Harsha’s reign. According to Hiuen Tang, King Harshvardhana had an efficient government. He further tells us that families were not registered and there was no forced labour,

Harsha’s religious activities

Do you know that Harsha built many hospitals and rest houses? He also gave grants to many religions especially Buddhism and Hindu Religion. Later in his life Harsha became more inclined towards Buddhism.

Harsha’s literary activities had some important plays e.g. Nagananda Ratnavali and Priyadarsita. He collected learned men around him as is evident from the report of Hiuen Tsang and Bana Bhat. Bana wrote Harsha’s famous biography, Harshcharita as well as the literary piece Kadambari.

Kingdoms of the Deccan and the South: You have read about the Satavahanas who controlled the Deccan for a long time. After their decline, many small kingdoms came up in the Deccan. The first one among them was that of the Vakatakas, who tried to build a strong state, but they did not last long

After the Vakatakas came the Chalukyas of Vatapi and Kalyani. Pulakesin was a powerful ruler of the Chalukya dynasty. The Chalukyas kept fighting with the Rashtrakutas (towards the north) and the Pallavas (towards the south). The Chalukya rule came to an end in 753 A.D. when the Rashtrakutas defeated them.

The capital city of Vatapi was a prosperous one. There were trade relations with Arabia, Iran and the Red Sea port to the west, as well as with South-East Asia. Pulakesin II sent an ambassador to king Khusrao II of Persia. The Chalukyas patronised art as well as religion. They build temples and cave shrines in the deccan hills. Many of the sculptures of the Ellora caves were created at this time under the patronage of the Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 3.2

Answer the following questions:

1. What were the sources of information about the social and economic conditions of the people of northern and north-western India in fourth century BC?

2. What is Dhamma vijaya according to king Ashoka?

3. State the views of Ashoka in his twelfth major rock edict?

4. Where do you find edicts of Ashoka?

5. Where is the national emblem of India taken from?

6. What were the features borrowed by Gandhara school of art from Greek and Roman art forms?

7. Describe the uniqueness of Mathura school of art?

3.10 CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT DURING THE GUPTA PERIOD

The last phase of ancient Indian history starts in early fourth century A.D. and ends in about the 8^th A.D. The Guptas built a strong and powerful kingdom and under the political unity and state patronage that was provided by them, cultural activities increased manifold. You will recall that following the Greek invasion, various art forms in India had been markedly influenced by Graeco-Roman styles. This art mainly depicted the Buddha or Buddhist thought. But during the Gupta period art became more creative and Hindu gods and goddesses also came to be portrayed.

The artistic achievement of the age is exhibited in the delicate workmanship and the variety of designs shown in different kinds of Gupta coins. The general scheme that was followed was to exhibit the portrait of the king on one side of the coin or an appropriate goddess  with her associated symbols on the other side. The king is shown in many positions- shooting a tiger or a lion, playing a musical instrument seated on a high backed couch etc. On the reverse in most cases was Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth and in some cases Saraswati, the goddess of knowledge and arts.

Besides coins, Gupta art found adequate expression in monuments and sculptures. The skilled artists of this age used their tools and skills to express the ideals and philosophical traditions of India through various art forms. They decorated even the niches and corners of religious places with statues of gods and goddesses. The images of gods were treated as symbols representing attributes associated with the gods. Hence the god were shown having four or eight arms in each carrying a symbol or an ayudha (weapon) although they were depicted in human forms. Stone, terracotta, and other materials were used to construct the abodes of gods and goddesses.

Examples of the Gupta art can be seen at the dashavatara temple at Deogarh and the cave temples in Udaigiri hills. However, the most famous examples of Gupta art that still remain are the numerous seated and standing images of Buddha from Sarnath.

The school of art that thrived at Sarnath provides us with some of the most pleasing and graceful images of the Buddha. Besides stone, Gupta artists were also skilled in bronze. A two metre high bronze image of Buddha has been discovered at Sultanganj (near Bhagalpur in Bihar). Examples of sculptures in caves created during this period are traced to the famous Ellora Caves.

Architecture

The Gupta architecture has survived in a few shrines, rock cut caves (Ajanta) and temples, such as the

Dashavatara  temple at Deogarh. These structures were mainly made of stone and bricks. Some references in the works of Kalidasa give us a glimpse of Gupta architecture. The poet has given a vivid picture of a well-planned town with a network of roads, market places, big sky-touching palaces and mansions with terraces. The palaces had many inner apartments. They had court-yards, prisons, court-room and sabhagriha. Their verandahs opened on roofs lit with moon-beam at night. The pleasure garden which was attached to palace contained all sorts of seasonal flowers and trees.

Archaeological evidence about Gupta architecture is however poor. However, examples of Gupta shrines have been discovered in the jungles of Central India, especially in the Bundelkhand region. These include the one at Bhitargaon in Kanpur district.

Painting

Painting as an art form reached a high degree of perfection during the Gupta times. The wall frescoes at the Ajanta caves (Aurangabad) and the one at Bagh caves (near Gwalior) bear evidence of this. Although Ajanta paintings belong to the period between the first to the seventh century AD yet most of these were produced during the Gupta time. These  paintings depict various scenes from the life of the Buddha. The skill with which the human, animal and plant figures have been drawn shows the refined and sensitive nature of Gupta art. The conception of beauty was a characteristic of Gupta art. Expression through art was given importance as it was regarded as a means for the attainment of spiritual joy.

3.11 THE PALLAVAS AND THE CHOLAS

Group of monuments at Mahabalipuram near Chennai

Any account of ancient India is incomplete without referring to the two dynasties of South India i.e. the Pallavas and the Cholas and their contribution to art, architecture, administration and conquests. Quite a few dynasties rose in the South from the early centuries of the Christian era. Among them the Pallavas were great patrons of art and architecture. The ‘ratha’ at Mahabalipuram style of temples built by them were fine examples of rock-cut temples. The Pallavas also built structural temples like the Kailashanath and Vaikunthperumal temples at Kanchipuram. The Kailashanath temple is a huge structure with thousands of images and is said to be the “largest single work of art ever undertaken in India”. There is also a set of bas reliefs found at Mahabalipuram (Mamallapuram) which is attributed to  the pallava period. The Pagodas built at Mahabalipuram go back to the first century AD.

Sun Temple, Konarak, Odisha

Do you know that the temple was the central place in the village? It was the gathering place for the villagers who would come here everyday and exchange ideas and discuss all matters of common interests. It served as a school too. During festival days dances and dramas were also performed in the temple courtyard.

The achievements of the Cholas also lie in their conquests across the seas and developing democratic institutions for governance at the village level. The village panchayat called sahha or ur had extensive powers. It had control over finances too. This body included several committees which looked after various aspects of village administration. A very detailed account of the functioning of the sabhas is available from one of the Chola inscriptions. The Chola rulers were also great builders. The Dravida style of temple architecture reached its zenith under the Chola rulers. One of the finest example of this style is the Rajarajeshwar or Brihadeshwara temple. During this period one also notices great achievements in the field of sculpture.

Great progress was made in literature both religious and secular. Sanskrit also became the language of the courts in many parts of the country. Tamil literatures also made great progress. The Alvars and the Nayanars, the Vaishnavite and Shaivite saints made lasting contributions to it. Inspite of the dominants position of Sanskrit in most parts of the country, this period marks the beginning of many Indian languages as well as distinct scripts in different parts of the country. In short, we can say that by the time, the ancient period of Indian history came to an end, India had developed a culture which was marked by features that have characterized it ever since.

3.12 TRANSFORMATION OF VEDIC BRAHMANISM INTO PURANIC HINDUISM

The transformation of the ancient brahmanical faith into modern Hinduism can be regarded as the most distinguishing feature from the Gupta period onwards. Buddhism no longer received as much royal patronage as it did earlier. Brahmanism had come to the forefront. The Gupta rulers especially provided filling to the Bhagavata Sect of Hinduism. They called them selved Bhagavatas, worshipped Lord Vishnu performed Asvamedha yajnas, gave large donations to brahmanas, and built many temples. The Puranas were finally compiled in this age. Vishnu emerged as the god of devotion and came to be represented as the preserver of dharma . Numerous legends gathered around him and a whole Purana called Vishnu Purana was compiled in his honour. Similarly a law book called the Vishnusmriti was also named after him. Above all, by the fourth century AD there came into being a famous Vaishnava work called ‘Shrimadbhagavad-purana’  which taught devotion to Lord Krishna. A few Gupta kings also were worshippers of Shiva, the god of  destruction. Bhagavatism which was a contemporary to Buddhism and Jainism in origin and owed its birth to the stream of thought which began with Upanishads reached its zenith and became the most popular sect during this age. The theory of Ten Avatars or incarnations of the supreme god Vishnu came to be accepted and among them, Krishna was considered the most important.

Besides Vishnu, Brahma, Surya, Kartikeya, Ganesha, Durga, Lashmi, Saraswati and others were also worshipped as were lesser gods like Indra, Varuna, Yama etc. The snakes, the yakshas, and the Gandharvas also continued to be revered. Even animals, plants, rivers and mountains were looked upon with reverence and cities like Banaras and Prayag became places of pilgrimage. Idol worship became popular. Thus the prominent features of modern Hinduism took shape during the Gupta period.

Although Buddhism was on its decline, yet it continued to have its following. Besides the artistic creations of Ajanta and Ellora, the images of Sarnath Buddha belonging to this time show that Buddhism was also quite popular. Even Jainism commanded some following during the Gupta period.

3.13 NALANDA’S EMERGENCE AS A GREAT CENTRE OF LEARNING

Nalanda became a great centre of learning during Harsha’s reign. Students from different parts of the world came here to imbibe learning. Although all the remains mounds of Nalanda have not yet been excavated, yet the evidence of a huge complex of buildings has been uncovered. Some of these were as many as four storey high. According to Hiuen Tsang, Nalanda housed as many as 10,000 students. It was supported by the revenues of 200 villages.

Although this huge monastic-educational establishment was primarily a centre for learning of Mahayana Buddhism, yet the curriculum included secular subjects as well. Grammar, logic, epistemology and sciences were taught here. Students were encouraged to develop a spirit of enquiry and reasoning. Active discussions and debates were taking place. Harsha is said to have invited a thousand learned monks of Nalanda to take part in the philosophical assembly at Kanauj. In his account, Hieun-Tsang has given a detailed account of Nalanda.

Thus university continued to be the centre of intellectual activity till the twelfth century.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 3.3

Answer the following questions:

1. What were the features of Gupta coins?

2. Where is Dashavatara temple located?

3. What are cave temples in Udaigiri hills famous for?

4. How high was the bronze statue of Buddha found at Sultangaj (near Bhaglpur)?

5. Where do you find the Gupta art form of painting?

6. Where was a philosophical assembly during Harsha reign took place?

3.14 CHRISTIANITY IN INDIA

According to tradition, christianity was brought to India by Saint Thomas in the first century A.D. According to legends, the Parthian king Gondophernes (C. 19- 45 A.C.) sent a messanger to Syria to look for a skilful architect who would build for him a new city. The messanger returned with St. Thomas, who converted him and many members of his court to Christianity. The truth of the legend is doubtful. It was most probably the frequent trade and movement between India and the west which was responsible for bringing this disciple of Lord Christ to India. The merchants, traders and even craftmen frequently travelled along popular land and sea routes. St. Tomas preached christianity in many parts of India. He was killed at Mylapore (near Madras). The tomb of St. Thomas is still to be found at the same place. A large community of christians known as Syrian Christians contine to reside in Kerala even today.

The Christian Church has two major divisions-the Roman Catholic church and the Protestant church. The holy book of the Christians is the Bible. The Bible contains two parts: the old Testament and the New Testament. The Bible today is available in all major langauges spoken in our country.

Today, we have over one and a half crore Christians in India. Several charitable institutions under their patronage are flourishing in all parts of our country. Perhaps the most famous Christian social worker, he has contributed a great deal for the welfare of the poor and home less in our country.

INTEXT QUESTIONS 3.4

Answers the following questions

1. How did Christianity come to India?

2. What are the divisions of the Christian Church?

3. Who was mother Teresa?

4. Name the two structural temples built by Pallavas at Kanchipuram?

5. What were the different style in temple architecture during the Pallavas and the Cholas?

6. Name the temple built by Cholas?

7. What was the style of sculpture in the Chola period called?

8. What style of work do you find at Mahabalipuram (Mamallapuram)

WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

• India has a continuous history covering a very long period dating as far back as 7000 BC;
• The Harappans built the earliest cities complete with town planning, sanitation, drainage system and broad well-laid roads;Agriculture was the most important occupation of the rural people.
• The vedic people have contributed immensely in various fields such as literature, religion and philosophy;
• Towards the latter Vedic people society was divided into four varnas Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras.
• Important religions i.e. Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism evolved and interactions between them resulted in a synthesis in Indian culture.
• The early Vedic people worshipped forces of nature and personified them as Gods and goddesses.
• The Mauryans set up the first great empire in North India and under the rule of Ashok the Great it reached great height in many fields;
•  The Mauryan contribution towards art and architecture was significant.
• Temple architecture reached its pinnacle of glory under the Pallavas who were great builders.
• Examples of the Gupta art can be seen at the Dashavtara temple at Deogarh and the cave temples in Udaigiri temples.
• King Harsha came to the throne of Thaneswar after he had lost his family in tragic circumstances.
• Two persons have given detailed accounts of Harsha’s reign. One is Hiuen Tsang—a Chinese pilgrim; the other is Bana Bhat—his court poet.
• Harsha was an efficient and benevolent ruler. He indulged in may welfare activities. He gave endowments for great public servants, rewarded people who did work of a high intellectual calibre and encouraged religious activities by giving gifts to various sects. He built many hospitals and rest hosues. Nalanda became a great centre of learning during Harsha’s reign.
• Harsha was also a literary person. He himself wrote plays and collected learned men around him.
• The achievements of the Cholas also lie in their conquests across the seas and developing democratic institutions for governance at the village level.

TERMINAL EXERCISE

1. How do you differentiate the culture of Aryans with the Harappans?

2. State the circumstances which leads to the emergence of Jainism and Buddhism in the sixth century BC?

3. What were the impact of Persian invasions on Indian culture?

4. What were the outcome of the Macedonian invasion on ancient Indians?

5. How did the transformation of vedic brahmanism into puranic Hinduism take place in ancient India?

6. Describe the development of Indian culture during the rules of successive empire?

ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

 3.1

1. On the banks of Indus, Ghaggar and its tributaries.

2. Agriculture

3. In mehrgarh in Baluchistan dated back to 7000 BC.

4. The seals contained some form of script.

5. One horned rhinoceros known as unicorn appeared on seals. A bronze sculpture of adancing girl was found in Mohanjadro. This testifies the sculpture skill of these people.

6. Veda – Rig, Atharva, Sama, Yajur and Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishada.

7. By dharma, artha and kama

8. It was performed along with chanting of Vedic hymns.

9. Ashramedha, Rajasuya, Vajapeya Yajnas

10. It was became more ritualistic. Instead of Indra, Agni, Varuna gods a new trinity of gods Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva were worshipped.

11. Games of chess, chariot racing etc.

12. Anga, Magadha, Kosala, Kashi, Kuru, Panchala.

13. Two – Swetambars (white clothes ones), Digambaras (the naked ones)

14. 8 (Eight)

15. Sthanakas in Jainism and Viharas in Buddhism.

16. Hinayana, Mahayana, Vajrayana

3.2

1. Greek accounts left by Arrian, Admiral Nearchus and Megasthenes.

2. True conquest is a conquest by piety and virtue i.e. welfare of people.

3. The honour of one sect lies in honouring other sects.

4. At Lauriya Nandangarh (Bihar)

5. From the famous Ashoka pillar, capital at Sarnath.

6. (i) Apollonian faces (ii) Hair style (iii) Draperies arrangement

7. (i) They started faces and figures of Buddha

(ii) Folklore were drawn out on long panels and rock faces.

(iii) They build statues also.

3.3

1. One side the portrait of king in different positions and the other side contained the goddess with her associated symbols.

2. At Deogarh

3. Gupta art

4. 2 metre high

5. (i) Wall frescoes of the Ajanta caves (Aurangabad)

(ii) Bagh caves (near Gwalior)

6. At Kanauj

3.4

1. St Thomas a skilful architect was a Christian. He was accidentally called by the Parthian king Gonda phernes in C-19/45 AD as an architect. St. Thomas converted many members into Christianity.

2. (i) The Roman Catholic Church

(ii) The Protestant Church

3. A famous Christian social worker who did a great work for poor and homeless.

4. Kalidashanath and Vaikunthaperumal.

5. Nagara style and Dravida style

6. Rajarajeshwar/Brihadeshware Temple

7. The Dravida Style

8. Bas Reliefs