Successors of Shivaji The Maratha Kingdom & Confederacy - History for UPSC

Sambhaji (1657-1689)

• Succession struggle: After Shivaji's death (1680) a contest for succession followed; Sambhaji, the elder son, emerged as ruler but faced opposition from other Maratha leaders and rival claimants.
• Relations with Mughal princes: Sambhaji gave temporary protection to Prince Akbar (a rebellious son of Aurangzeb), but the prince failed in his revolt and ultimately left for Persia (circa 1686-87).
• Conflict with the Mughals and capture: Sambhaji continued active resistance against Aurangzeb's campaigns. He was captured at Sangameshwar by Mughal forces led by Muqarrab Khan and was executed in 1689.
• Administration and policy notes: Sambhaji continued Maratha military and naval activities and attempted to consolidate royal authority, but his reign was dominated by continuous warfare with the Mughal Empire.

Rajaram (r. 1689-1700)

• Accession and flight: After Sambhaji's death Rajaram (younger son of Shivaji) was released from captivity and installed by the ministers; facing intense Mughal pressure he left Raigad in 1689 and established his base at Jinji (Gingee) in present-day Tamil Nadu.
• Garrison at Jinji: Jinji remained the Maratha stronghold (the southern base) until its fall to the Mughals in 1698.
• Loss of Raigad and capture of Shahu: While Rajaram held Jinji, Raigad fell to the Mughals and Shambhaji's son Shahu was taken captive by Mughal forces.
• Military leadership: During Rajaram's reign active Maratha generals such as Santaji Ghorpade and Dhanaji Jadhav led raids and guerrilla operations that kept Mughal attention divided.
• Administrative change: The office of Pratinidhi was created during this period, increasing the number of principal ministers and adjusting the administrative structure of the kingdom.
• Return and death: After the fall of Jinji (1698) Rajaram returned towards the Deccan and died at Satara in 1700; Satara subsequently became the principal Maratha capital for the main (Shahu) line.

Shivaji II and Tarabai (1700-1707)

• Regency: On Rajaram's death his minor son Shivaji II was proclaimed ruler under the regency of his mother Tarabai, who effectively controlled the Maratha polity from 1700.
• Military activity: Under Tarabai's leadership Marathas continued offensive operations, including attacks in Berar (1703), Baroda (1706) and repeated incursions towards Mughal centres such as Aurangabad.
• Division in Maratha polity: Tarabai's authority was strong in the Deccan, but a rival centre of power re-emerged with the release of Shahu by the Mughals (see below), setting the stage for civil conflict.

Shahu (r. 1707-1749)

• Release and contest for power: Shahu, son of Sambhaji, was released from Mughal custody after Aurangzeb's death and returned to Maratha politics in 1707. His return triggered a civil war (1707-1714) between his supporters and the faction of Tarabai.
• Battle of Khed (1708): Shahu defeated Tarabai's forces at Khed (1708) and occupied Satara, consolidating his claim to the throne.
• Final outcome: Tarabai was finally subdued and imprisoned in 1714, but a separate Maratha branch in the south (Kolhapur) continued to be ruled by Rajaram's descendants, including Shivaji II and later Sambhaji II.
• Rise of Peshwaship and confederacy: During Shahu's reign the office of the Peshwa (prime minister) became the effective executive authority, and the Maratha state increasingly operated as a confederacy of powerful chiefs (Peshwas, Scindias, Holkars, Gaekwads, Bhonsles, etc.).

The Peshwas: Rise and Expansion

Balaji Vishwanath (Peshwa 1713-1720)

• Background: Balaji Vishwanath began as a revenue official and was awarded the title Sena Karta (maker of the army) by Shahu for his services during the civil war.
• Peshwa appointment and hereditary status: He was appointed Peshwa in 1713 and established the Peshwaship as a hereditary and central administrative office.
• Settlement with the Mughals: In 1719 Balaji Vishwanath negotiated with the influential Sayyid Brothers at the Mughal court. The Mughal emperor's recognition (for practical purposes) allowed Shahu to claim the right to collect chauth and sardeshmukhi from six Mughal provinces in the Deccan.

Baji Rao I (Peshwa 1720-1740)

• Military expansion: Under Baji Rao I the Marathas carried out numerous campaigns northwards to weaken Mughal power and to establish Maratha influence across much of India.
• Strategic approach: Baji Rao is remembered for his aggressive cavalry campaigns and for the strategic aim to strike at the core of Mughal power so that peripheral territories would fall away-summarised in the famous maxim attributed to him: "Let us strike at the trunk of the withering tree and the branches will fall of themselves."
• Outcome: The campaigns under Baji Rao I expanded Maratha influence into large parts of central and northern India and made the Peshwa the effective head of Maratha imperial policy.

Balaji Baji Rao / Nana Saheb (Peshwa 1740-1761)

• Succession and authority: Known as Nana Saheb, Balaji Baji Rao became Peshwa at about 20. After Shahu's death in 1749 he assumed management of state affairs in practice and dominated Maratha policy.
• Political agreements and expansion: In the 1750s the Peshwa's authority extended into northern and western India; in 1752 an arrangement effectively allowed the Marathas to collect chauth from parts of the north-west and to claim revenues of some Mughal provinces, bringing them into direct confrontation with emergent powers in the north-west.
• Conflict with Ahmad Shah Abdali: The Maratha expansion brought them into conflict with Ahmad Shah Abdali (Durrani ruler of Afghanistan), culminating in the Third Battle of Panipat (14 January 1761).
• Third Battle of Panipat, 1761: The Marathas were decisively defeated by Ahmad Shah Abdali's coalition. Key Maratha leaders including Viswas Rao (son of Nana Saheb) and Sadashivrao Bhau (Nana Saheb's cousin and army commander) were killed; large numbers of soldiers also perished. The defeat halted Maratha northward expansion and caused a political and military crisis.
• Death of the Peshwa: Balaji Baji Rao died soon after receiving news of the disaster (1761).

Maratha Leadership after Panipat

• Madhav Rao I (r. 1761-1772): Recovered Maratha fortunes through internal reform and skilful administration.
• Narayana Rao (r. 1772-1773): Short reign ending in palace intrigue and assassination.
• Sawai Madhav Rao (Madhav Rao II) (r. 1773-1795): Restored stability under a regency and continued consolidation.
• Baji Rao II (r. 1795-1818): Last Peshwa whose policies and conflicts with the British culminated in the final defeat of Peshwa power and the abolition of the Peshwaship.

Administrative Structure and Village Organisation

• Peshwa dominance and confederacy: During the 18th century the Maratha polity worked increasingly as a confederacy where the Peshwa in Pune served as the central coordinating authority while powerful chiefs (Scindia, Holkar, Gaekwad, Bhonsle, etc.) exercised autonomy in their regions.
• Revenue rights and collections: The Marathas levied two important exactions on conquered or tributary areas: chauth (one-fourth of revenue) and sardeshmukhi (an additional ten percent), which became sources of income and instruments of influence.
• Village officers and local roles:The village and district level administration included hereditary and appointed functionaries; commonly used terms were:
  • Patel: Responsible for collection of land revenue at the village level.
  • Kulkarni: Hereditary village accountant, responsible for record-keeping.
  • Balutedar: Hereditary village artisan or servant who provided specified services in exchange for land or fees.
  • Mirasdar: Holder of hereditary rights in land.
  • Haliya: Bonded agricultural labourer attached to land.
  • Upari: Cultivator of rented lands.
  • Bhagdar / Patidar: Partner or shareholder in joint village holdings.
  • Mamlatdar: Official responsible for various branches of district administration (revenue, police, and civil matters).
• Social composition of the Peshwas: The Peshwaship, particularly from the 18th century, came to be dominated by Chitpawan Brahmins, who supplied many of the office-holders and administrators around the Peshwa court.

Naval and Fort Policy

• Kolaba (Alibaug) naval base: Shivaji had established a naval force to protect the Konkan coast and stationed much of the fleet at the fort of Kolaba (Alibaug); naval defence and control of coastal trade remained an important feature of Maratha statecraft.

Selected Facts and Points to Remember

• Baji Rao II spent his later years as a pensioner of the British and lived for many years at Bithur near Kanpur after his deposition.
• Holkar was the Maratha chief who finally entered into a subsidiary alliance with the British; several Maratha chiefs later concluded subsidiary or similar treaties.
• Baji Rao I's most famous accomplishment was his sustained north-India expeditions (1737-38 and beyond) that extended Maratha influence.
• Mamlatdar was responsible for multiple branches of district administration under Maratha rule.
• Nana Phadnavis was a leading administrator and statesman at the Peshwa court, often regarded as chief architect of administration and finance during the late 18th century.
• The Peshwaship was formally abolished by the British following the defeat of the Peshwa and the end of Peshwa polity in 1818.
• Shahu had his seat at Satara which served as the Maratha capital for the principal line.
• Shivaji II and Sambhaji II ruled from Kolhapur as the head of a separate southern branch after the split between Satara and Kolhapur lines.
• Santaji Ghorpade and Dhanaji Jadhav were noted Maratha generals active during Rajaram's reign.
• Pratinidhi was a new ministerial post created during the reign of Rajaram, reflecting administrative adaptations under wartime conditions.

Important Battles & Events (Selected)

Consequences and Historical Evaluation

• From kingdom to confederacy: Under Shahu and his Peshwas the Maratha polity transformed from the compact Swarajya of Shivaji into a wide-ranging confederacy with several semi-autonomous chiefs who exercised regional authority while acknowledging nominal central leadership.
• Military and political reach: Maratha campaigns in the 18th century significantly weakened Mughal hegemony and made the Marathas a major pan-Indian power, though internal factionalism and the catastrophic defeat at Panipat (1761) limited their long-term consolidation.
• Administrative legacy: The Peshwa administration, the village revenue institutions, and Maratha naval and fort policy left lasting administrative and regional impacts on the Deccan and western India.

Summary: The period after Shivaji's death saw prolonged warfare with the Mughal Empire, the flight and southern base of Rajaram at Jinji, the rise of Shahu and the Peshwas, sustained Maratha expansion into northern India under Peshwa leadership, and eventual setbacks culminating in Panipat. Administratively the Maratha state evolved into a confederacy with important village-level institutions and a powerful Peshwa centre in Pune; socially and politically this period set the stage for the later interactions with European powers and the coming era of British ascendancy.