Introducing Western Sociologists Class 11 Sociology

Introduction

• Sociology is said to have emerged from the "age of revolution."
• The development of sociology was influenced by the Enlightenment, the French Revolution, and the Industrial Revolution, all of which brought about significant changes in society.
• As new ways of understanding the world emerged, there was a need to move away from the traditional reliance on nature, religion, and divine intervention in explaining social phenomena.
• The emergence of modernity in Europe was driven by three main processes, which had an impact on the ideas of classical sociological theorists such as Marx, Weber, and Durkheim. These processes were shaped by social circumstances that influenced the way these theorists thought about society.

Which were:

• The onset of the Age of Reason or Enlightenment.
• The French Revolution symbolized the quest for political self-rule.
• The mass production brought about by the Industrial Revolution.

The Age of Enlightenment

• In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, Western Europe witnessed the emergence of new worldviews that came to be known as "The Enlightenment." These novel ideas placed a high value on reason and human beings as the most significant elements of creation.
• The Enlightenment was both facilitated by and contributed to the development of secular, scientific, and humanistic attitudes that we now associate with this period.
• The ability to think critically and logically transformed humans into "knowing subjects" who were responsible for creating and consuming all knowledge.
• According to this worldview, only individuals who possessed the capacity for reason and thought could be regarded as fully human.
• In order for reason to establish itself as the distinguishing characteristic of the human world, it was necessary to move nature, religion, and divine intervention out of the limelight.

The French Revolution

• The French Revolution of 1789 brought political sovereignty to both individuals and nation-states.
• The Declaration of Human Rights challenged the legitimacy of inherited privileges and declared the equality of all citizens.
• The majority of peasants, who were previously bound to the landed estates controlled by the nobility as serfs or bonded labourers, were granted freedom.
• Numerous levies that the peasants had paid to the feudal lords and churches were abolished.
• The state was required to respect the privacy of autonomous individuals and its laws could not interfere with people's private lives.

The public sphere of the state and the private sphere of the family were divided.

• As education, particularly formal schooling, became more accessible to the general public, the domains of religion and the family became increasingly private.
• The nation-state, too, was redefined as a sovereign entity with centralized governance.
• The principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity, which emerged from the French Revolution, became the foundational values of the modern state.
• The Revolution marked the demise of the oppressive control wielded by the feudal and ecclesiastical institutions that had governed France prior to that period.

The Industrial Revolution

• The groundwork for modern industry was established by the Industrial Revolution, which began in Britain in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. It brought about significant changes in two main areas:
  • The first involved the systematic application of science and technology to industrial production, including the development of new tools and the exploitation of new energy sources.
  • The second, on a much larger scale than before, resulted in new methods of organizing markets and labor.
• The manufacturing system changes brought about by the Industrial Revolution caused significant social changes. People who were displaced from rural areas and migrated to cities in search of work filled the industries established in urban areas.
• Due to the low wages offered by factories, men, women, and even children had to work long hours in hazardous conditions in order to make a living.
• Modern systems of governance, where the state is responsible for overseeing public health, sanitation, crime prevention, and overall "development," necessitated the acquisition of new forms of knowledge.

Karl Marx

• Although he was born in Germany, Karl Marx spent the majority of his intellectually productive years living in exile in Britain.
• Although he studied philosophy, Karl Marx was primarily a social theorist focused on ending exploitation and tyranny.
• Marx believed that scientific socialism was the path to achieving this goal.
• Marx's theory posited that human society had evolved through several stages of development, including feudalism, primitive communism, slavery, and capitalism.

Concept of Alienation

• In the capitalist society, there was a multi-level, ever-intensifying process of alienation.
• The first issue in contemporary capitalist societies is the increasing distance between people and the natural world.
• The second problem is the individualisation of social structures under capitalism, which means that social connections become increasingly mediated by market forces, resulting in greater alienation among individuals.
• The third challenge concerns the lack of ownership over the goods produced by employees, which means that a significant portion of the working population is disconnected from the benefits of their labour

Marx believed that despite its flaws, capitalism played a crucial role in advancing humanity towards a future of equality and freedom. However, he also recognized that the working class, who suffer the most under capitalism, would eventually band together and lead a revolution to overthrow the system and establish a socialist society. In order to understand how capitalism operates, Marx conducted an extensive analysis of its political, social, and economic dimensions.

Marx's view of the economy

The idea of a mode of production served as the foundation for Marx's economic theory.

• The economic base is composed of the productive forces and production relations, which are primarily economic in nature, according to Marx's theory.
• Productive forces include all the means of production such as land, labor, technology, and energy sources, such as electricity, coal, petroleum, and so on.
• Production relations encompass all forms of labor organization and economic ties involved in production.
• Ownership or control of the means of production defines property relations or production relations.
• Marx argued that people's beliefs and ideas were shaped by the economic system in which they lived.
• Contrary to the idea that material life was shaped by human thought, Marx believed that people's ideas were influenced by how they made a living.

Marx gave a lot of attention to economic processes and structures since he thought they were the cornerstones of all social systems throughout human history.

Class Struggle

• Instead of relying on factors like religion, language, or ethnicity, Marx believed that social classes were primarily defined by their position in the production process.
• According to Marx's theory, individuals with similar roles in the production process would eventually form a distinct class.
• As the mode of production changes, conflicts arise between different classes, and Marx believed that class conflict was the main driver of social change.
• The working class emerged as a new social class during the shift from agricultural to capitalist production, as peasants and serfs lost their means of subsistence and became property-less.
• Without access to their own means of production, these individuals were forced to sell their labor to survive, forming a class based on their shared experience of working in similar conditions.
• Marx saw class conflict as a major force in social transformation, arguing that it was necessary for members of a class to become aware of their shared interests and identities in order for conflict to occur.
• Political mobilization based on class interests can lead to the development of "class consciousness" and ultimately to revolution, where previously subordinated classes overthrow their oppressors.
• Marx and Engels famously opened their Communist Manifesto with the line "The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles."
• In capitalist society, the working class is forced to sell their labor for wages, as they have lost access to the resources they need for production.
• Conflict between classes doesn't necessarily arise automatically - it requires members of each class to become aware of their interests and identities in order to mobilize against each other.
• Political mobilization around class interests can create "class consciousness" and lead to revolution, where formerly subordinated classes overthrow their oppressors.
• Marx's theory suggests that contradictions within the economic process lead to class conflict and ultimately to social change.
• While economic factors play a role in revolutionary change, social and political processes are also necessary to fully restructure society.
• The dominant ideology in a society can serve to protect the interests of the ruling class and justify the current social structure, often at the expense of the working class.
• Alternative ideologies can challenge dominant beliefs and create space for new ideas to emerge.
• Marx argued that economic processes tend to lead to class conflict, which can lead to revolutionary change under favorable political and social conditions.

Emile Durkheim

• Durkheim is recognized as the founder of sociology as a formal discipline because he was the first to hold a professorship in sociology.
• Durkheim's early education involved attending a Jewish religious institution, a rabbinical school.
• In 1876, he enrolled in the Ecole Normale Superieure and later renounced his religious beliefs to identify as an atheist.
• Durkheim's upbringing instilled in him a lasting influence on his views on society.
• The moral standards of a civilization were the fundamental elements that shaped people's behavioral patterns according to Durkheim.
• Raised in a religious household, Durkheim was passionate about obtaining a secular understanding of religion, which he ultimately achieved in his final book, The Elementary Forms of Religious Life.

Social fact as described by Emile Durkheim

• According to Durkheim, society was a collective moral entity that transcended the individual.
• Social facts, which include social norms, laws, and regulations, are elements of social reality that compel individuals to conform to group norms.
• Durkheim believed that an individual's behavior was influenced by their moral code, and he emphasized the importance of communal representations that reflect a society's morals, values, beliefs, traditions, and so on.
• Social facts are widespread throughout society and are universally observed.
• This advancement helped Durkheim's larger goal of establishing sociology as a rigorous scientific discipline, bringing it closer to the natural sciences.
• Durkheim conceptualized sociology as a new scientific field with two defining features.
• Sociology is concerned with the study of social facts, which are distinct from other scientific disciplines in the following ways:
  • Durkheim characterized sociology as the study of the "emergent level," or the level of complex collective existence where social phenomena can emerge, such as social institutions like religion or the family, and social values like friendship and patriotism.
    (i) Social constructs, such as groups, political parties, gangs, religious communities, and nations, exist on a higher level of reality than individuals, and sociology examines this "emergent" level.
    (ii) The second feature of Durkheim's sociology was similar to that of most natural sciences.
  • It was to be an empirical discipline:
    (i) One of Durkheim's most significant contributions to science was his ability to demonstrate that sociology, which deals with abstract concepts like social truths, could still be a science based on tangible, empirically verifiable evidence.
    (ii) Social facts are like objects in that they exist outside of individuals but control their behavior. Social realities include institutions such as law, education, and religion.
    (iii) Social facts are representations that result from social interaction and are not specific to an individual but rather universal and independent of the individual. Beliefs, emotions, and social customs are examples of social facts' characteristics.

Division of Labor in Society

• Durkheim presented his method of analysis in his first work, which explained the evolution of society from prehistoric to modern times.
• He classified societies based on their social solidarity, or the ties that bind their members together.
• Durkheim argued that primitive societies relied on "mechanical" solidarity, while modern societies were built on "organic" solidarity.
  • Mechanical solidarity is found in small, homogeneous societies where individuals share similar beliefs and values.
    (i) These societies often consist of self-sufficient groups where each member performs related tasks or activities.
    (ii) They have strict rules to prevent deviations from social norms, as the community and individual are tightly intertwined.
    (iii) Violations of social standards were feared to undermine the community's cohesion.
  • Organic solidarity, on the other hand, characterises modern societies, which are diverse and interdependent.
    (i) It recognises the different roles and functions of individuals, while also respecting their desire for individuality.
• In modern societies, laws aim to restore justice, whereas in prehistoric societies, laws were retributive and aimed to punish wrongdoers and seek communal vengeance.
• Prehistoric societies also lacked individual autonomy, with individuals completely enmeshed in the collective.
• In modern societies, individuals can take on different roles and identities, allowing them to forge their own paths and identities.
• The Division of Labor in Society is a valuable introduction to Durkheim's ongoing concerns.
• Durkheim's objective and secular investigation of social relations in various types of society laid the foundation for sociology as a new social science.

Max Weber

• While he wrote extensively on various subjects, his primary focus was on developing an interpretive sociology of social action, dominance, and power.
• Weber was concerned with two additional key areas: how different religions around the world related to the process of modern society's rationalization.
• According to Weber, the primary objective of the social sciences was to create an "interpretive comprehension of social action."
• All meaningful human behavior, behavior to which actors ascribe a purpose, is what Weber referred to as "social action."
• Sociology is an example of "empathetic understanding," which is based on "feeling with" (empathy) rather than "feeling for" (sympathy).
• Weber was among the first to discuss the unique and challenging form of "objectivity" that the social sciences needed to develop.
• The foundation of the social world consists of arbitrary human meanings, values, emotions, prejudices, ideals, and so forth.
• Social sciences were obliged to confront these arbitrary interpretations.
• Social scientists had to continually practice "empathetic understanding" by imagining themselves in the shoes of the individuals whose actions they were examining to capture these meanings and express them effectively.
• The sociologist had to accurately capture the subjective intentions and motivations of social actors without allowing his or her own values or worldview to interfere in order to demonstrate "empathetic comprehension."

This kind of objectivity is what Weber dubbed "value neutrality."

• Sociologists must objectively document subjective values.
• Weber recognized that social scientists faced a difficult task as they were also members of society and prone to their own irrational beliefs and biases.
• In order to maintain "value neutrality" when conveying the perspectives and worldviews of others, social scientists had to exercise significant self-control and what Weber called an "iron will."

Concept of Ideal Types

The "ideal type" was another methodological instrument Weber offered for doing sociology. Weber’s ‘ideal type’—

• The "ideal type" is a tool used in methodology for sociology, as proposed by Weber.
• It is a model of social phenomena that emphasizes significant characteristics and maintains logical consistency.
• Its purpose is not to be a perfect replication of reality.
• It highlights particular aspects of a phenomenon that are deemed analytically significant while minimizing or disregarding others.
• Its main function is to facilitate analysis by accentuating key aspects and relationships of the social phenomenon under investigation, although it should be broadly accurate.
• The "ideal type" is useful for both analysis and comprehension, as well as for the level of precision and comprehensiveness it can provide in describing the phenomenon.

Examples:

• Using the ideal type, Weber investigated the link between the ethics of "world religions" and the rationalization of the social world in different civilizations. He argued that the moral teachings of specific Protestant Christian sects played a significant role in the development of capitalism in Europe.
• Weber also employed the ideal type to differentiate between three types of authority: traditional, charismatic, and legal-rational. Traditional authority is based on customs and precedents, while charismatic authority is derived from divine sources or the "gift of grace" and is evaluated through rational and legal criteria.

Bureaucracy

Bureaucracy is an organizational form that arose from the separation of the private and public spheres. It embodied the rational-legal authority that became dominant in modern times, signifying the presence of explicit norms and regulations governing conduct in the public sphere.
As a public institution, bureaucracy constrained the power of officials within their designated roles and did not allow for unfettered authority.

Defining characteristics of bureaucratic power

• The bureaucracy operates under the principle of "official jurisdiction," which involves the implementation of rules, laws, and administrative regulations.
  • Bureaucratic tasks are assigned according to official obligations and performed by qualified individuals.
• The hierarchy of authority in the bureaucracy is arranged in a graded system, with higher-ranking officials supervising lower-ranking ones.
  • In case of disagreement, a higher official may be consulted due to the hierarchical structure.
• Written documents, such as files, serve as the basis for management in a bureaucratic organization.
• Office management is a specialized activity that requires skilled personnel to perform tasks.
• Due to the official nature of bureaucratic work, strict guidelines and standards govern the behavior of officials in the workplace, regardless of their working hours.

Weber described bureaucracy as an organizational method that aimed to maintain a clear separation between the private and public domains. It limited the power of officials to their specific duties and did not grant them unrestricted authority. Each actor was assigned tasks that they had the necessary authority to carry out, based on their recognized abilities and training. Weber viewed bureaucracy as a modern form of political authority. He also viewed it as a hierarchical social organization, in which each member held some degree of authority and power.