Technical Mock Test CE (SSC JE)- 16

If letters are given the position value, the relation between the letters is as follows,

Thus SQOM is related to HJLN.

Birds collects grass with the help of beak to make nest. Similarly Cup is used to drink something with the help of lips.

Hence, the correct answer is LIP.

Mount Everest is located in Asia.

Mont Blanc is located in Europe.

As the sequence in this problem followed is:

⇒ (12 + 1) × 3 = 13 × 3 = 39

So in the same way the corresponding number for 15 is

⇒ (15 + 1) × 3 = 16 × 3 = 48

Given, 3 : 243 :: 5 :?

The relation is in the form of 3⁵ → 243

Similarly, 5⁵ → 3125

1 is the tens digit of 2819 and the tens digit of 6432 is 3.

Grams, Kilograms, Quintal are unit of measuring Weight. Similarly Tonnes also used to measure Weight.

According to the given numbers, in all other numbers

Second number = (First number / 3) + 3

156 – 55 → (156 / 3) + 3 = 55

207 – 72 → (207 / 3) + 3 = 72

255 – 63 → (255 / 3) + 3 = 88

234 – 81 → (234 / 3) + 3 = 81

The number which does not follow the rule is 255 – 63.

Hence the answer is 255 – 63.

In all other numbers,

Third number → First number + second digit of second number

12, 26, 18 → 12 + 6 → 18

13, 19, 16 → 13 + 9 → 22

35, 78, 43 → 35 + 8 → 43

43, 27, 50 → 43 + 7 → 50

Hence, the correct answer is 13, 19, 16.

69 = 23 × 3

230 = 23 × 10

115 = 23 × 5

163 = 23 × 7.08

All the numbers except 163 are multiples of 23.

Hence, 163 is answer.

All the other are consonants but only option 2) is vowels.

Here 1^st letter + 7 = 2^nd letter; 2^nd letter – 6 = 3^rd letter; 3^rd letter + 7 = 4^th letter

1. BICJ = B + 7 = I;    I – 6 = C; C + 7 = J

2. CJDK = C + 7 = J;   J – 6 = D; D + 7 = K

3. AIHB = A + 8 = I; I – 1 = H; H – 6 = B

4. DKEL = D + 7 = K; K – 6 = E; E + 7 = L

“AIHB” doesn’t follow the pattern, hence it is odd one out

A) ABD = A + 1 = B; B + 2 = D

B) GHJ = G + 1 = H; H + 2 = J

C) MPR = M + 3 = P; P + 2 = R

D) VWY = V + 1 = W; W + 2 = Y

Hence, MPR is odd one out. 

Hold is odd one as other words when read backwards give meaningful words

Thus Hold is the answer.

Here, each digit has been allocated a unique symbol as shown below:

Thus,

Thus the required digits are 865234.

If we write the code,

light   lamp  live =    drum rum  sum

pole   high  area  =   din  pin  kin

area   pole   mark =   pin din  fin

area   live  red  =   pin  rum  disk

The words that are matching in the four statements have been marked.

From the above explanation it is clear that the code for ‘Red’ and ‘high’ is ‘disk’ and ‘kin’ respectively.

Observe the figures where ÷ is on the top i.e. figure 1, 3 and 4.

O and × are adjacent to each other.

From figure 4,

+ and O are adjacent to each other.

So the arrangement will be,

+  O  ×

From figure 3, Δ and + are adjacent to each other.

So the arrangement becomes,

Δ  +  O  ×

Hence O will be opposite to Δ as 1^st and 3^rd element will be opposite to each other.

The correct option is (C) because it will complete the two concentric diamond shaped square and also it does not contain a circle similar to its diagonally opposite part.

The statement asserts that people do not condone a particular trend for a long time and want to change it quite often. The first inference cannot be drawn as nothing about the authors’ mind set can be inferred. Thus only inference II follows because the public wants a change and wants something original all the time. Thus, literature is altered every six months to suit the taste of the public.

Let the daughter’s age six years ago be ‘y’.

Then mother’s age six years ago = 5 × y

Daughter’s age at present = y + 6

Mothers age at present = (5 × y) + 6

According to the question, mother’s age at present = (5 × y) + 6 = 3 × (y + 6)

Solving, we have:

y = 6

Hence the daughter’s age six years ago was 6 years.

Given equation: 5 + 3 × 8 – 12 ÷ 4

1) Interchanging + and ÷ ⇒ 5 ÷ 3 × 8 – 12 + 4 ⇒ 13.33 – 12 + 4 = 5.33 ≠ 3

2) Interchanging + and – ⇒ 5 – 3 × 8 + 12 ÷ 4 ⇒ 5 – 24 + 3 = -16 ≠ 3

3) Interchanging – and ÷ ⇒ 5 + 3 × 8 ÷ 12 – 4 ⇒ 5 + 2 – 4 = 3

4) Interchanging + and × ⇒ 5 × 3 + 8 – 12 ÷ 4 ⇒ 15 + 8 – 3 = 23 – 3 = 20 ≠ 3

Hence interchanging – and ÷ we get the equation correct.

Rewriting each option by replacing blanks by given symbols and finding the correct combination, we get

1) 8+6-7÷3 = 12 is not correct as L.H.S. is equal to 14 – 2.33 = 11.67

2) 8+6-7+3 = 12 is not correct as L.H.S. is equal to 10.

3) 8+6+7-3 = 12 is not correct as L.H.S. is equal to 18.

4) 8-6+7+3 = 12 is correct as L.H.S. is equal to R.H.S.

Hence answer is - + + =.

Logic:-

→ (1^st Column × 2) + 2 = 2^nd Column;  (2^nd Column × 2) + 2^nd Column = 3^rd Column

→ (2 × 2) + 2 = 6 , (6 × 2) + 6 = 18

→ (4 × 2) + 2 = 10 , (10 × 2) + 10 = 30

→ (3 × 2) + 2 = 8 , (8 × 2) + 8 = 24

So, ? = 24.

Hence, Option (A).

Looking at alternate terms and in anti clockwise pattern, we see:-

?, 21, 23, 25

We see that there is a difference of 2 between 2 elemets.

By that logic, ? = 19.

Hence, 19 is correct answer.

1) 00, 56, 20, 68, 76 ⇒ S, A, I, N, T

2) 11, 67, 31, 57, 12 ⇒ S, A, I, N, F

3) 22, 78, 20, 02, 44 ⇒ S, A, I, K, C

4) 33, 67, 42, 00, 99 ⇒ S, A, I, S, O

Therefore, “00, 56, 20, 68, 76” are set of number which represent Word ‘SAINT’

The correct order is:

a. Stem

d. Branch

b. Leaf

c. Flower

e. Fruit

The above being the logical order in which they grow.

Hence, Correct order is a, d, b, c, e.

Words as per dictionary will be arranged as follows:

Tempest

Tender

Tendon

Tennis

Terminal

Hence the word in middle is Tendon.

After rearranging the jumbled letters,

SUVNE = VENUS

APTLE = PLATE

ARMS = MARS

RUJTIPE = JUPITER

Among these, except one, three words have same category. They all are planets.

Only PLATE is different.

Hence, (APTLE) is true.

Interchanging the first two letters we get.

IHJ → HIJ

ONP → NOP

STR → TSR

LKM → KLM

After interchanging the letters, all results in three consecutive letters except STR.

Here all except Shark are Mammals. Shark is a Fish. 

From the given options, Punishment is odd one because Reward, Praise, Encourage are the ways to expressing admiration & to boost up one to do better performance.

But Punishment is the imposition of penalty or rough treatment.

Thus Punishment is odd one.

Avoid: keep away from
Dodge:  avoid by a quick movement
Flee: run away from a place or situation of danger
Duck:  avoid by moving quickly
From the meaning of the above words we see that flee is the odd one out.

‘Monetary’, ‘pecuniary’, ‘remuneration’ are all related to money. Only ‘gold’ is unrelated. ‘Gold’ is the precious metal. While gold adds value to a person’s finances, it is not directly related to money.

Prize and Award : Given for distinction or good performance.

Gift: Given without in exchange for anything.

Charity: An activity or gift that benefits as form of good deed.

So, Charity is odd-one out.

211, 283, and 277 is a prime number but 287 does not a prime number therefore 287 is odd one out.

1) 1356 ⇒ 1 + 3 + 5 + 6 = 15

2) 5497 ⇒ 5 + 4 + 9 + 7 = 25

3) 8764 ⇒ 8 + 7 + 6 + 4 = 25

4) 9943 ⇒ 9 + 9 + 4 + 3 = 25

Therefore, 1356 is odd one among given option.

1) 1716 ⇒ 13 × 12 × 11 = 1716

2) 2730 ⇒ 15 × 14 × 13 = 2730

3) 3360 ⇒ 16 × 15 × 14 = 3360

4) 4086 ⇒ 17 × 16 × 15 = 4080

Here as we can see in above explanation 1716, 2730 and 3360 are in form of

⇒ a(n) = n × (n–1) × (n–2)

But 4086 does not follow this equation.

Therefore, 4086 is odd one out. 

• Environmental degradation is the deterioration of the environment through depletion of resources, the destruction of ecosystems, habitat destruction, the extinction of wildlife, and pollution.
• Thus it means overall lowering of environmental qualities
• It also means adverse change brought by human activities
• And it causes ecological imbalance.

The Virtual Private Network is setup for a certain group of users like the users in one office or of a company etc.

An Internet Protocol address (IP address) is a numerical label assigned to each device connected to a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication. It is a 32 bit number. 

An HTTP request contains 4 parts. Which are Request Method, URL, Header Fields, and Body

Mercury is the planet that is closest to the sun and therefore gets more direct heat, but even it isn't the hottest. Venus is the second planet from the sun and has a temperature that is maintained at 462 degrees Celsius, no matter where you go on the planet. It is the hottest planet in the solar system.

Limewater is the common name for a diluted solution of calcium hydroxide. Limewater is prepared by stirring calcium hydroxide in pure water and filtering off the excess undissolved Ca(OH)₂. It is basic in nature.

Reactivity is defined as rate at which a chemical substance tends to undergo a chemical reaction.

The order of reactivity is known as reactivity series, in which reactivity decreases from top to bottom.

In reactivity series copper, gold known as structural metals are at bottom where sodium, potassium are at top of series.

Reactivity series -

K > NA > Ca > Mg > Al > C > Zn > Fe > Sn > Pb > H > Cu > Ag > Au > Pt.

Calamine is an ore of zinc. Galena is an ore of lead. Siderite is an ore of iron and malachite is an ore of copper. An ore is a body of rock which contains a high enough concentration of a metallic or non-metallic resource.

Diamond is the hardest non-metal. The hardness of the diamond depends on the purity, perfection and alignment of its atoms in the crystalline structure.

Crescograph was invented by Jagdish Chandra Bose in the early 20^th century. It is a device for measuring growth in plants.

Each location in space has its own specific value of electric field strength and direction. If two electric field lines were to intersect at a point, it would mean that there are two different values of electric field at that single point, each with its own direction. This is not possible.

A fountain pen is a nib pen that draws ink from the reservoir through a feed to the nib and deposits it on paper via a combination of gravity and capillary action.

A polarized 3D system (Polaroids) uses polarization glasses to create the illusion of three-dimensional images by restricting the light that reaches each eye. 

Light travels at same speed across all media and in all variants. What differs is the distance which it travels depending upon the wavelength of the colour.

Chicken pox is an infectious disease causing a mild fever and a rash of itchy inflamed pimples which turn to blisters. It is caused by the herpes zoster virus and mainly affects children.

Babur was involved in the first battle of Panipat where he defeated Sikander Lodi. Second battle was fought between Akbar and Hemu where Hemu got defeated. Third battle saw the victory of Ahmed Shah Abdali over Marathas.

The Hindu Marriage Act is an Act of the Parliament of India in 1955 as part of the Hindu Code Bills. Three other important acts were also enacted during this time: the Hindu Succession Act (1956), the Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act (1956), the Hindu Adoptions and Maintenance Act (1956).

Doha Round is the current trade-negotiation round of the World Trade Organization (WTO) which commenced in November 2001.

RTE provides for free and compulsory education for children between 6 and 14 in India under Article 21A of the Indian Constitution.

Many parts of Indian constitution were borrowed from various countries. DPSPs were borrowed from Ireland

National girl child day is celebrated every year on 24 January as a national observance day for the girl child.

Marx professed a future where capitalism would be abolished by a revolution brought upon by the workers of the world. In the process, Socialism would be established which would then be succeeded by Communism.

The Russian Revolution is the collective term for a pair of revolutions in Russia in 1917, which dismantled the Tsarist autocracy and led to the eventual rise of the Soviet Union.

Anemia is a condition in which there is a deficiency of iron in the blood, resulting in pallor and weariness.

SIM or Subscriber Identity Module card is a portable memory chip that is found inside the cell phones.

Chromatophores are pigment-containing and light-reflecting cells, or groups of cells, found in a wide range of animals including amphibians, fish, reptiles, crustaceans and cephalopods.

A cultigen is a plant that has been deliberately altered or selected by humans; it is the result of artificial selection.

Convex mirrors are used because they provide a larger field of view than a plane mirror. For example, the passenger-side rear view mirror on a car is convex.

Momentum is the product of the mass and velocity of an object.

A fibre optic cable consists of a bundle of glass threads, each of which is capable of transmitting messages modulated onto light waves. Fibre optic is based on the principle of total internal reflection.  

When light shines on a lustrous metal, the loosely bound electrons reflect incoming light, giving the metal a shiny appearance.

Cement is a binder substance that sets and hardens and can bind other materials together. It is formed out of the chemical reaction between Limestone and clay.

Iodoform is the organoiodine compound with the formula CHI₃. It has a pale yellow, crystalline, volatile substance, it has a penetrating and distinctive smell.

Kuiper belt is a region of the solar system beyond the orbit of Neptune, believed to contain many comets, asteroids, and other small bodies made largely of ice.

Vitamin K is a group of structurally similar, fat-soluble vitamins the human body requires for complete synthesis of certain proteins that are prerequisites for blood coagulation that the body needs for controlling binding of calcium in bones and other tissues.

Syphilis is a chronic bacterial disease that is contracted chiefly by infection during sexual intercourse.

National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development is an apex development bank in India, having headquarters in Mumbai and other branches all over the country. It was formed in 1982.

Article 16 provides for Equality of opportunity in matters of public employment. Article 17 provides for Abolition of Untouchability and Article 18 provides for Abolition of titles.

Article 63 of the Constitution says that there shall be a Vice President of India.

The Indian general election of 1951–52 elected the first Lok Sabha since India became independent in August 1947. The Indian National Congress (INC) won a landslide victory, winning 364 of the 489 seats and 45% of the total votes polled.

Article 370 of the Indian Constitution grants a special constitutional status to the state of Jammu and Kashmir. As a part of this, the laws passed by the Indian constitution apply to the state of J&K only if they are passed by the J&K legislature.

Article 32 of the Indian Constitution which deals with the right to constitutional remedies against the violation of human rights was described by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar as the very soul of the constitution.

Ligament is the connected tissue which connects bone to bone. Tendon connects muscle to bone and fasciae connects muscle to muscle.

The Brahmi script is one of the most important writing systems in the world by virtue of its time depth and influence. It represents the earliest post-Indus corpus of texts, and some of the earliest historical inscriptions found in India.

Megasthenes gave an account of India in his book Indica.

Fathometer is an instrument that works on the echo system and used to measure the depth of water in an ocean.

Nitrous oxide or N₂O, a transparent gas is called laughing gas. The gas is used as an anaesthetic, in cans as well as an oxidizing agent for racing cars.

Blu-ray disc is a digital optical disc data storage format. It was designed to supersede the DVD format, in that it is capable of storing high-definition video resolution (1080p).

Michael W. Yong, Michael Rosbash and Jeffrey C. Hall have won the Nobel Prize 2017 in Medicine or Physiology for their discoveries of the molecular mechanisms controlling the circadian rhythm. The Nobel Prize in medicine is decided by the Karolinska institute, a medical centre in Sweden.

Maximum pitch for rivets or welds in tension zone are 16t or 200 mm whichever is less as per IS 800: 1984 but for rivets in compression zone it is 12t or 200 mm whichever is less.

Minimum thickness of lacing bar

t_min = l/40 for single lacing

t_min = l/60 for double lacing

Where l = effective length of lacing member

The correct expression as per IS 456 : 2000 to find Target mean strength is :

f_cm = f_ck + 1.65 σ

1.65 is generally a risk factor.

As per Art. 7.1 of IS 456 : 2000, For Construction of lightly reinforced sections in slabs, beams, walls etc. degree of workability required is low. Whereas far heavily reinforced sections in slabs, beams etc Degree of work ability required is Medium.

As per IS 456 : 2000, The minimum cover for bars in RCC slabs should be limited to:

• 15 mm
• Diameter of bars

(whichever is maximum).

The anchorage value is 4 times the diameter for every 45^o bend. So for 16 times the diameter the bend is 180^o

The assumption that plane sections normal before and after bending remain same is used in both working stress and limit sate method. For this the strain diagram is linear in both working stress and limit state method.

According to IS: 456-2000, the maximum allowable crack width (in mm) for mild type of environmental condition is 0.3 mm.

The characteristic strength is defined as the strength of the concrete below which not more than 5% of the test results are expected to fall.

In simply supported beam near the support the shear force is maximum. As the vertical stirrups are provided to resist the vertical shear, near the support the stirrups are closer. 

The maximum diameter of bar used in slab should not exceed 1/8 of the total thickness of slab.

The pitch of the main bars in a simply supported slab should not exceed three times the effective depth of slab. But for distribution bars it is 5 times the effective depth.

Witney’s theory is ultimate load theory. Witney replaced the actual parabolic stress diagram by a rectangular stress diagram such that the C.G of both the diagrams lies at same point and their areas are also equal. The maximum depth of concrete stress block in a balanced RCC beam is 0.53 d.

Check for deflection,

For catilever beam permissible value is 7, so the beam is not safe in deflection.

Check for lateral stability,

l≯25b=25×150=3750mm=3.75m

For lateral stability length ≯ 3.75 m

So the beam is not laterally stable.

Option 3 is correct.

As per IS 456 : 2000, the minimum percentage of steel is 0.8% and maximum percentage of steel is 6%. Although as per practical consideration the maximum percentage of steel is limited to 4% only.

Slaking is the process in which quick lime reacts with water, during this reaction, it swells, cracks, and falls out as calcium hydroxide.

An aggregate is said to be elongated if its greatest dimension is greater than 1.8 times the mean diameter.

Length of aggregate ≮ 1.8 × 67.5

= 121.5 mm

Dicalcium silicate is the last compound that is formed after the addition of water in the cement which may require a year or so for its formation. It is responsible for the progressive strength of cement. While Tricalcium silicate is responsible for the early development of strength. Tricalcium aluminate is responsible for the maximum evolution of heat of hydration.

Soaking of bricks is water before its use is done because wetting of bricks removes dirt, sand and dust. Soaked bricks prevents suction of water from the wet mortar. If dry bricks are used then it will absorb water from mortar and mortar will become, dry and cannot attain any strength. The main reason for soaking the brick is to prevent adsorption of moisture from mortar by bricks.

Overgrowth of Timber in some parts of a tree may result in some typical defects. Rind gall are quite common. A rind gall is simply a highly thickened, enlarged wood cover developed over an injured part of the tree. The meaning of rind is bark and gall is abnormal growth. So abnormal growth of the bark of the trees is called Rind galls. Improper cutting of branches causes this abnormal growth

Shakes are defects that occur around the annual ring or growth ring of timber.

Defects in Bricks are:

1. Bloating: This defect observed as spongy swollen mass over the surface of burned bricks is caused due to presence of excess carbonaceous matter and sulphur in brick clay.

2. Chuffs: The deformation of the shape of bricks caused by the rain water falling on hot bricks is known as chuffs.

3. Laminations: These are caused by the entrapped air in the voids of clay. Laminations produce thin lamina on the brick faces which weather out on exposure. Such bricks are weak in structure.

To make concrete economical, mixing of concrete is performed in a machine mixer that leads to 10% saving in quantity of cement and the optimum number of revolutions in which concrete is required to be mixed in a mixer machine is 20 revolutions in 2.5 or 3 minutes.

Defects due to conversion are: Chip mark, Torn grain, Diagonal grain, wane

Defects due to Fungi are: Heart Rot, Brown Rot, White Rot, Dry rot, wet rot, sap stain, blue stain

Defects due to Natural forces are: cup shakes, Ring shakes, heart shakes, radial shakes

Defects due to seasoning are: Bow, warp, cup and twist

In the preparation of clay, first Unsoiling of clay is done in which top 200 mm soil is thrown out as it contains most of the impurities in it, then digging is done in which soil is dug out and is thrown on a level field to make it ready for the next operation of cleaning then cleaning of impurities is performed, after cleaning, cleaned clay is exposed to the atmosphere for few weeks to few months in order to carry out its softening, Ripening and mellowing etc then ingredients of the brick earth is spread over the clay in required proportion and at last tempering is done in a pug mill.

IS 1661: 1972 = Code of Practice for application of cement and cement-lime plaster finishes.

IS 1261: 1956 = Code of Practice for seam welding in mild steel.

Properties of concrete can broadly divided in to two categories:

(i) Properties of hardened Concrete

(ii) Properties of fresh concrete

No of Brinks required in 1 m³ of brickwork

No. of Bricks required in 20m³ of brickwork is = 20 × 500 = 10000

Water content and water cement ratio related provisions are given in IS 456 : 2000

IS 383 → specification for Coarse and fine aggregates.

Generally white marble is found in Jabalpur district (M.P.) and Black marble in Jaipur.

Asbestos paints are used in residences, schools, and other public buildings as well as the Commercial establishment and maritime vessels. Asbestos paint is an inexpensive, efficient and more fire-resistant paint which has been widely used in many applications for decades.

Enamel paint is paint that air dries to a hard, usually glossy finish. Used for coating surfaces that are outdoors or otherwise subjected to hard wear or variations in temperature, it should not be confused with decorated objects in “painted enamel”.

Chir and Deodar both yield soft wood hence are called conifers trees, as they possess distinct annular rings but indistinct medullary rays. While sal, Teak, Shishum are Decideous trees which yield hard woods.

The initial setting of Portland cement is due to tricalcium aluminate. Tricalcium silicate hydrates quickly and contributes more to the early strength. The contribution of dicalcium silicate takes place after 7 days and may continue for up to 1 year. Tricalcium aluminate hydrates quickly, and generates much heat and makes only a small contribution to the strength within the first 24 hours. Tetracalcium alumino-ferrite is comparatively inactive.

The slump recommended for mass concrete is about 25 mm to 50 mm.

Pointing, in building maintenance, the technique of repairing mortar joints between bricks or other masonry elements. When aging mortar joints crack and disintegrate, the defective mortar is removed by hand or power tool and replaced with fresh mortar, preferably of the same composition as the original. All of the above statements are correct.

Loss on ignition is calculated by heating up a cement sample to 900 – 1000°C (1650 – 1830°F) until a constant weight is obtained. The weight loss of the sample due to heating is then determined. A high loss on ignition can indicate pre-hydration and carbonation, which may be caused by improper and prolonged storage or adulteration during transport. Loss on ignition in cement should not exceed 5%

Calcination or calcining is a thermal treatment process to bring about a thermal decomposition. The process takes place below the melting point of the product. The name calcination is derived from the Latin word ‘Calcinare’ which mean to burn lime.

The initial setting time can be defined as the time taken by paste to stiffen to such an extent that the Vicatt’s needle is not permitted to move down through the paste through 25 mm. With Portland cement and rapid hardening cement, the normal initial setting time should not be less than 30 minutes and the final setting time should not be more than 10 hours. With a quick setting cement, the initial setting time should not be less than 5 minutes and the final setting time should not be more than 30 minutes.

Run is the total length of stair in a horizontal plane, including landings.

Flight – It is a series of steps without any platform or landing or breaks in their direction.

Riser – It is the vertical portion of a step providing a support to the tread.

The percentage of water for normal consistency is 20% to 30% .

E = 2G (1 + μ)

200 = 2 × 66.67 (1 + μ)

μ = 0.5

In case of biaxial stress,

i.e. It is the magnitude of difference between their principal stresses divided by 2.

Moment of Inertia = Ar²

Where A = Area of cross section

R = radius of gyration

Elasticity is the property of a material to regain its original shape after deformation when the external forces are removed. All materials are plastic to some extent but the degree varies, for example, both mild steel and rubber are elastic materials but steel is more elastic than rubber.

Plasticity of a material is its ability to undergo some degree of permanent deformation without rupture or failure. This property is important in forming, shaping, extruding and many other hot and cold working processes.

Durability is defined as the ability of a product to perform its required function over a lengthy period under normal conditions of use without excessive expenditure on maintenance or repair.

Strength is defined as the ability of the material to resist, without rupture, external forces causing various types of stresses. Breaking strength is the ability of a material to withstand a pulling or tensile force.

Toughness is defined as the ability of the material to absorb energy before fracture takes place. In other words, toughness is the energy for failure by fracture. Toughness is measured by a quantity called modulus of toughness. Modulus of toughness is the total area under a stress-strain curve in tension test, which also represents the work done to fracture the specimen.

Hardness is defined as the resistance of a material to penetration or permanent deformation. It usually indicates resistance to abrasion, scratching, cutting or shaping.

Stiffness or rigidity is defined as the ability of the material to resist deformation under the action of external load. Modulus of elasticity is the measure of stiffness.