Test: Environment- 7 - UPSC MCQ

The Formation of Smog

• Photochemical smog (smog) is a term used to describe air pollution that is a result of the interaction of sunlight with certain chemicals in the atmosphere.
• One of the primary components of photochemical smog is ozone.
• While ozone in the stratosphere protects earth from harmful UV radiation, ozone on the ground is hazardous to human health.
• Ground-level ozone is formed when vehicle emissions containing nitrogen oxides (primarily from vehicle exhaust) and volatile organic compounds (from paints, solvents, printing inks, petroleum products, vehicles, etc.) interact in the presence of sunlight.

The rate of biomass production is called productivity. It can be divided into gross primary productivity (GPP) and net primary productivity (NPP). Gross primary productivity of an ecosystem is the rate of production of organic matter during photosynthesis. A considerable amount of GPP is utilized by plants in respiration. Gross primary productivity minus respiration losses (R), is the net primary productivity (NPP).
GPP – R = NPP
Net primary productivity is the available biomass for the consumption to heterotrophs (herbivores and decomposers).
Secondary productivity is defined as the rate of formation of new organic matter by consumers.

Wildlife Crime Control Bureau is a statutory multi-disciplinary body established by the Government of India under the Ministry of Environment and Forests, to combat organized wildlife crime in the country. Under Section 38 (Z) of the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972, it is mandated to collect and collate intelligence related to organized wildlife crime activities and to disseminate the same to State and other enforcement agencies for immediate action so as to apprehend the criminals; to establish a centralized wildlife crime data bank; co-ordinate actions by various agencies in connection with the enforcement of the provisions of the Act;

• Both the species benefit in mutualism and both lose in competition in their interactions with each other. In both parasitism and predation only one species benefit (parasite and predator, respectively) and the interaction is detrimental to the other species (host and prey, respectively).
• The interaction where one species is benefitted and the other is neither benefited nor harmed is called commensalism. In amensalism on the other hand one species is harmed whereas the other is unaffected. Predation, parasitism and commensalism share a common characteristic– the interacting species live closely together.
  Example of commensalism is the interaction between sea anemone that has stinging tentacles and the clown fish that lives among them.
  The fish gets protection from predators which stay away from the stinging tentacles. The anemone does not appear to derive any benefit by hosting the clown fish.

• The cheetah, Acinonyx jubatus, is one of the oldest of the big cat species, with ancestors that can be traced back more than five million years to the Miocene era.
• The cheetah is also the world’s fastest land mammal.
• The country’s last spotted feline died in Chhattisgarh in 1947. Later, the cheetah — was declared extinct in India in 1952.

The Asiatic cheetah is classified as a “critically endangered” species by the IUCN Red List, and is believed to survive only in Iran.

Detrivores (e.g., earthworm) break down detritus into smaller particles. This process is called fragmentation.

• By the process of leaching, water soluble inorganic nutrients go down into the soil horizon and get precipitated as unavailable salts.
• Bacterial and fungal enzymes degrade detritus into simpler inorganic substances. This process is called as catabolism. It is important to note that all the above steps in decomposition operate simultaneously on the detritus.
• Humification and mineralization occur during decomposition in the soil. Humification leads to accumulation of a dark colored amorphous substance called humus that is highly resistant to microbial action and undergoes decomposition at an extremely slow rate. Being colloidal in nature it serves as a reservoir of nutrients. The humus is further degraded by some microbes and release of inorganic nutrients occurs by the process known as mineralization.

ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

• An important characteristic of all communities is that their composition and structure constantly change in response to the changing environmental conditions. This change is orderly and sequential, parallel with the changes in the physical environment. These changes lead finally to a community that is in near equilibrium with the environment and that is called a climax community. The gradual and fairly predictable change in the species composition of a given area is called ecological succession. During succession some species colonies an area and their population become more numerous whereas populations of other species decline and even disappear.
• The entire sequence of communities that successively change in a given area are called sere(s). The individual transitional communities are termed seral stages or seral communities.
• Succession is hence a process that starts in an area where no living organisms are there – these could be areas where no living organisms ever existed, say bare rock; or in areas that somehow, lost all the living organisms that existed there. The former is called primary succession, while the latter is termed secondary succession.
• Secondary succession begins in areas where natural biotic communities have been destroyed such as in abandoned farm lands, burned or cut forests, lands that have been flooded. Since some soil or sediment is present, succession is faster than primary succession.

Ecotone

• Ecotone is a zone of junction between two or more diverse ecosystems. For e.g. the mangrove forests represent an ecotone between marine and terrestrial ecosystem. Other examples are – grassland, estuary and river bank.

Characteristics of Ecotone

• It may be very narrow or quite wide.
• It has the conditions intermediate to the adjacent ecosystems. Hence it is a zone of tension.
• A well-developed ecotone contains some organisms which are entirely different from that of the adjoining communities.
• Sometimes the number of species and the population density of some of the species is much greater in this zone than either community. This is called edge effect.
• The organisms which occur primarily or most abundantly in this zone are known as edge species. In the terrestrial ecosystems edge effect is especially applicable to birds.
• For example, the density of birds is greater in the mixed habitat of the ecotone between the forest and the desert.

• In order for biomagnification to occur, the pollutant must be: long-lived, mobile, soluble in fats, biologically active. If a pollutant is short-lived, it will be broken down before it can become dangerous. If it is not mobile, it will stay in one place and is unlikely to be taken up by organisms. If the pollutant is soluble in water, it will be excreted by the organism. Pollutants that dissolve in fats, however, may be retained for a long time.
• If a pollutant is not active biologically, it may biomagnify, but we really don’t worry about it much, since it probably won’t cause any problems Examples: DDT

The organisms (both flora and fauna) in the aquatic ecosystem are unevenly distributed but can be classified on the basis of their life form or location into five groups

i) Neuston:

• These are unattached organisms which live at the air water interface such as floating plants, etc.

ii) Periphyton:

• These are organisms which remain attached to stems and leaves of rooted plants or substances emerging above the bottom mud such as sessile algae and their associated group of animals.

iii) Plankton:

• This group includes both microscopic plants like algae (phytoplankton) and animals like crustaceans and protozoans (zooplankton) found in all aquatic ecosystems, except certain swift moving waters.

iv) Nekton:

• This group contains animals which are swimmers.
• The nektons are relatively large and powerful as they have to overcome the water currents.
• The animal’s range in size from the swimming insects (about 2 mm long) to the largest animals, the blue whale.

v) Benthos:

• The benthic organisms are those found living in the bottom of the water mass.
• Practically every aquatic ecosystem contains well developed benthos.

The GEF provides funding to assist developing countries in meeting the objectives of international environmental conventions.
The GEF serves as a “financial mechanism” to five conventions: Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs), UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), and Minamata Convention on Mercury.

• The Green Climate Fund (GCF) is a global fund created to support the efforts of developing countries to respond to the challenge of climate change. GCF helps developing countries limit or reduce their greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and adapt to climate change. It seeks to promote a paradigm shift to low-emission and climate-resilient development, taking into account the needs of nations that are particularly vulnerable to climate change impacts.
• It was set up by the countries who are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 2010, as part of the Convention’s financial mechanism.
• GCF’s activities are aligned with the priorities of developing countries through the principle of country ownership, and the Fund has established a direct access modality so that national and sub-national organisations can receive funding directly, rather than only via international intermediaries.
• The Fund’s investments can be in the form of grants, loans, equity or guarantees.

• The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) is an international organization working in the field of nature conservation and sustainable use of natural resources. It is involved in data gathering and analysis, research, field projects, advocacy, and education.
• IUCN does not itself aim to mobilize the public in support of nature conservation. It tries to influence the actions of governments, business and other stakeholders by providing information and advice, and through building partnerships.
• IUCN has a membership of over 1400 governmental and non-governmental organizations. Its headquarters are in Gland, Switzerland.
• IUCN has observer and consultative status at the United Nations and plays a role in the implementation of several international conventions on nature conservation and biodiversity. It was involved in establishing the World Wide Fund for Nature and the World Conservation Monitoring Centre.
• IUCN was established in 1948. It was previously called the International Union for the Protection of Nature (1948–1956) and the World Conservation Union (1990–2008).

• As an intergovernmental body, membership of the IPCC is open to all member countries of the United Nations (UN) and WMO.
• It was established by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) in 1988 to provide the world with a clear scientific view on the current state of knowledge in climate change and its potential environmental and socio-economic impacts.
• Thousands of scientists from all over the world contribute to the work of the IPCC on a voluntary basis as authors, contributors and reviewers.

• Conservation International (CI) is an American non-profit environmental organization headquartered in Crystal City, Arlington, Virginia.
• CI’s work focuses on science, policy and partnership with businesses, governments and communities.

States and Union Territories with more than 75 per cent of their land under forest cover can undertake compensatory afforestation in other states.
According to the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980, each time forest land is diverted, the project proponent has to pay the state to undertake plantation and for the ecosystem services lost due to diverting forest land, called Net Present Value (NPV).

CAMPA Act:

• To compensate the loss of forest area and to maintain the sustainability, the Government of India came up with a well-defined Act, known as CAMPA (Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority).
• The law establishes the National Compensatory Afforestation Fund under the Public Account of India, and a State Compensatory Afforestation Fund under the Public Account of each state.
• These Funds will receive payments for: (i) compensatory afforestation, (ii) net present value of forest (NPV), and (iii) other project specific payments.
• The National Fund will receive 10% of these funds, and the State Funds will receive the remaining 90%.
• According to the Act’s provision, a company diverting forest land must provide alternative land to take up compensatory afforestation.
• For afforestation, the company should pay to plant new trees in the alternative land provided to the state.
• The law says that land selected for afforestation should preferably be contiguous to the forest being diverted so that it is easier for forest officials to manage it. But if no suitable non-forest land is found, degraded forests can be chosen for afforestation.

Central Ground Water Authority (CGWA) has been constituted under Section 3(3) of the ‘Environment (Protection) Act, 1986’ for the purpose of regulation and control of ground water development and management in the Country.

• Wildlife laws divide species into ‘schedules’ ranked from I to V. Schedule I members are the best protected, in theory, with severe punishments meted out to those who hunt them.
• Wild boars, nilgai and rhesus monkeys are Schedule II and III members — also protected, but can be hunted under specific conditions. Crows and fruit bat fall in Schedule 5, the vermin category.
• Section 62 of Act empowers Centre to declare wild animals other than Schedule I & II to be vermin for specified area and period.
• Section 11(1) a of the Wildlife Protection Act (WPA) authorizes chief wildlife warden to permit hunting of any problem wild animal only if it cannot be captured, tranquillized or translocated.

National Board for Wildlife:

• It is a “Statutory Organization” constituted under the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972.
• Its roles is “advisory” in nature and advises the Central Government on framing policies and measures for conservation of wildlife in the country.
• Primary function of the Board is to promote the conservation and development of wildlife and forests.
• It has power to review all wildlife-related matters and approve projects in and around national parks and sanctuaries.
• No alternation of boundaries in national parks and wildlife sanctuaries can be done without approval of the NBWL.

• In this solid state, the normal microbial decomposition of organic materials is stalled, and the carbon dioxide and methane that’s normally produced stays in the ground.
• This means that in the permanently frozen regions of Siberia, Canada, Greenland and Alaska store about double the amount of carbon that’s up in the atmosphere.
• But as the Earth warms, and the soils starts to get hotter, the microbes become active and the greenhouse gases drift upwards once again

• Mosses are a common flowerless plant found in all cities especially in damp (humid) or shady locations. It generally absorbs water and nutrients from their immediate environments.
• So, according to scientists, delicate mosses found on rocks and trees in cities around the world can be used as low-cost bio indicator to monitor urban pollution and to measure the impact of atmospheric change.
• As a bio indicator, mosses respond to pollution or drought- stress by changing its shape, density or disappearing. This characteristic will allow scientists to calculate atmospheric alterations and air pollution.

Living organisms were first evolved on seas and then moved to lands. Simple organisms like blue green algae, bacteria were first evolved, then it lead to corals, spiders and complex animals like snakes, horses etc.,

Biotic potential, the maximum reproductive capacity of an organism under optimum environmental conditions.

• Often mistaken for a form of vegetation, corals “are in fact an animal that lives in symbiosis with an algae, a plant,”
• Corals and algae “provide services for each other,” with the algae providing “up to 90% of the coral animal’s food” through photosynthesis
• “When ocean temperatures get too hot, this symbiosis, this relationship, breaks down”. “The algae is lost from the coral and causes the coral to look white,” effectively “starving” it.