Test: Ancient History and Medieval- 3 - UPSC MCQ

• In Jainism, the three jewels (also referred to as ratnatraya or tri-ratna) are understood as samyagdarshana ('right faith'), samyagjnana ('right knowledge), and samyakcharitra ('right action').
• One of the three cannot exist exclusive of the others, and all are required for spiritual liberation i.e. attainment of freedom from worldly bonds.
• Right faith is the belief in the teachings and wisdom of Mahavira. Hence statement 1 is correct.
• Right Knowledge is the acceptance of the theory that there is no God and that the world has been existing without a creator and that all objects possess a soul. Hence statement 2 is not correct.
• Right conduct refers to the observance of the five great vows: - Hence statement 3 is correct.
  • not to injure life
  • not to lie
  • not to steal
  • not to acquire property
  • not to lead immoral life
     

• Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh II (1686-1743) was the ruler of the Rajput State of Amber in India. A feudatory of the Mughals, he received the title of 'Sawai' (one and a quarter) from Emperor Aurangzeb, who declared him a quarter superior to his famous forebearer Mirza Raja Jai Singh (d. 1667) after he captured the Fort of Vishalgarh from the Marathas in 1701.
• After bringing to the Emperor's notice some astronomic discrepancies that possibly affected the timings of Hindu and Muslim holy events and expressing his desire to correct these, Jai Singh also received Imperial backing for building his Astronomy Observatories at Delhi, Jaipur, Varanasi, Ujjain, and Mathura.
  • All except the observatory at Mathura are in existence today.
• Sawai Jai Singh's ingenuity led to the invention of several outsize masonry instruments, the majority of which were used to determine the coordinates of celestial objects with reference to the local horizon.
  • During Jai Singh’s lifetime, the observatories were used to make observations in order to update existing ephemerides such as the Zīj-i Ulugh Begī.
  • Jai Singh established communications with European astronomers through a number of Jesuits living and working in India. In addition to dispatching ambassadorial parties to Portugal, he invited French and Bavarian Jesuits to visit and make use of the observatories
• Jai Singh wrote the astronomical work 'Zij-e-Muhammad-Shahi' (Muhammad Shah's astronomical tables) in 1728. That same year he also built his new, magnificently designed capital Jaipur, about 200 km southwest of Delhi and constructed by combining the aspects of the ancient Hindu treatise on architecture, the Shilpa Shastra, and plans of many European cities of the period with Jai Singh's own ideas.
• The European travelers of the time, like the Frenchman Louis Rousselet, and the English bishop, Heber, were greatly impressed by Jai Singh's unparalleled excellence in city planning.
• Hence option (d) is the correct answer.
   

• The administrative structure of the Mauryan Empire involved a division of the empire into provinces, each under the direct governance of a prince (kumara) or a member of the royal family. Hence statement 1 is not correct.
• The inscriptions suggest four such provinces – a southern one with its center at Survarnagiri, a northern province with a capital at Taxila, a western one with its capital at Ujjayini, and an eastern one with its capital at Tosali. Ashokan inscriptions also referred to these governors as kumara, suggesting a continuation of the tradition of appointing royal princes to these important posts.
• Senior officers called pradeshikas were tasked with touring the empire every five years and performing an audit as well as keeping a check on the provincial administration. In addition, there were judicial officers, rajukas, in both urban and rural areas, whose judicial functions often combined with the assessment of revenue. A well-organized administration was needed for a variety of tasks such as surplus production, extraction of surplus, distribution or expenditure, a strong army to conquer areas, tax collection from traders and agriculturalists, etc.
• The Arthashastra and even Ashokan edicts mention a Mantri Parishad (council of ministers). It is mentioned in the Arthashastra that the state cannot function without the assistance of ministers. Yet the Council had to report its opinion to the king immediately. The primary role of the Council was advisory in nature. The king’s decision was final in all respects. Hence statement 3 is not correct.
• As per Megasthanese's Indica, there are numerous references to different committees in the district councils. Panyadhyaksha was responsible to look after trade and commerce and inspect weights and measures. The collection of taxes was the responsibility of Sulkahyaksha and the registration of births and deaths was the work of Gopa. The head of the urban administration was called Nagarika. He was assisted by two subordinate officials-Gopa and Sthanika. Other officials are also mentioned such as Bandhanagaradhyaksha (looked after the jail); Rakshi (i.e. the police; looked after the security of the people); Lohadhyaksha, Sauvarnika (officials who looked after goods that were manufactured in the centers). Hence statement 2 is not correct.

• The Junagarh prasasti also throws light on the diversified revenue demands of the state. This inscription describes that the treasury (kosa) of Rudradaman I overflowed with precious metals like gold (kanaka), silver (rajata), and gems by dint of his collection of lawfully levied taxes (yathavaprapta), like rent on land (bali), share on agricultural produce (bhaga), and tolls and customs (sulka). It also mentions that one of Chandragupta Maurya’s governors, Pushyagupta, was responsible for building a dam on Sudarshana Lake near Girnar in Kathiawar. Hence pair 1 is correctly matched.
• The Rabatak inscription is an inscription written on a rock in the Bactrian language and the Greek script, which was found in 1993 at the site of Rabatak, near Surkh Kotal in Afghanistan. The inscription relates to the rule of the Kushan emperor Kanishka and gives remarkable clues on the genealogy of the Kushan dynasty. It dates to the 2nd century CE. Hence pair 2 is correctly matched.
• The Great Mauryan ruler Ashoka embraced Buddhism (as a part of shraman tradition) and the immense Buddhist missionary activities that followed during his rule paved the way for the development of Mauryan sculptural and architectural styles. The shraman tradition refers to several Indian religious movements parallel to but separate from the historical Vedic religion. Ashoka erected pillars and edicts all over the subcontinent and even in modern-day Afghanistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, and Pakistan to spread Buddha’s word. One of which is the Rummindei Inscription mentions that the village of Lumbini (birthplace of the Buddha) was exempted from Bali and was to pay only one-eighth of the bhaga. Hence pair 3 is correctly matched.

• A distinct feature of the Vijayanagara state was the importance of the Brahmans as political and secular personnel rather than ritual leaders. Most of the durga dannaiks (in charge of forts) were Brahmans. Literary sources substantiate the theory that fortresses were significant during this period and were placed under the control of the Brahmans, especially of Telugu origins. Hence, statement 1 is not correct.
• The rulers of the early Sangama dynasty were Saivas who made additions to the Sri Virupaksha temple of Vijayanagara. The Saluvas were basically Vaishnavas who gave patronage to both the Siva and Vishnu temples. Krishnadeva Raya constructed the Krishnaswami temple (Vaishnava shrine) and also gave grants to Siva temples. The Aravidu kings also gave gifts to Vaishnava temples. Hence, statement 2 is not correct.
• The relationship between kings, sects, and temples can be explained in terms of four assertions:
  • Temples were basic for sustaining kingship.
  • Sectarian leaders were the connecting links between kings and temples.
  • Though the routine supervision of the temples was done by local sectarian groups, the task of solving disputes concerning temples was in the hands of the king. Hence, statement 3 is correct.
  • The intervention of the king in the above matter was administrative, not legislative
     

• Asanga, along with Nagarjuna, Aryadeva and Vasubandhu, were thinkers of the Mahayana sect of Buddhism.
• Mahayana philosophical ideas were represented in the texts of two major Buddhist schools – Madhyamaka and Yogachara.
• Asanga (belonging to the 4th century) was a fourth-century Indian adept and philosopher and an important proponent of the Yogachara school. So, Pair 1 is not correct.
• Gunabhadra is a Jain saint who lived in the 9th century. He, along with Jinasena, wrote the Trishashtilakshana Mahapurana.
• It has life stories of various Jaina saints, kings, and heroes. It also has sections on topicssuch as life- cycle rituals, the interpretation of dreams, town planning, the duties of a warrior, andhow a king should rule. So, Pair 2 is not correct.
• The Bhakti saints of the Tamil Bhakti movement came from varied social backgrounds. While a significant portion was Brahmanas, there were also people from other social backgrounds.
• Two saints, namely the Shaiva saint Nandanar (only Dalit ("untouchable") saint in the Nayanars) and the Vaishnava saint Tiruppan Alvar, are described as ‘untouchables’. So, Pair 3 is not correct.

• Kushanas were the first dynasty of the Subcontinent to mint large quantities of gold coins, and their silver coins were rare. They also issued many copper coins of low denominational value, which indicates the increasing spread of the money economy in the 1st - 4th centuries CE. Kushana coins have the figure, name, and title of the king on one side, and on the reverse side are deities belonging to the Brahmanical, Buddhist, Greek, Roman, and other pantheons. The legends are either entirely in Greek, or in some cases in Kharoshthi, on the reverse. So, Statement 1 is correct.
• The imperial Gupta kings issued well-executed die-struck gold coins with metrical legends in Sanskrit known as dinaras. These coins have been mostly found in north India. The obverse depicts the reigning king in various poses, usually martial ones, but there are interesting instances of coins of Samudragupta and Kumaragupta-I showing them playing the vina (a stringed instrument). The reverse of the Gupta coins has religious symbols indicating the kings’religious affiliations. There was a decline in the metallic purity of gold coins in the later part of Skandagupta’s reign. The Guptas also issued silver coins, but their copper coins are rare. So, Statement 2 is correct.
• In the Deccan, the pre-Satavahana coinage was followed by the copper and silver coins of the Satavahana kings. Rulers of this dynasty also issued coins of small denominational value made of lead and potin. Most Satavahana coins were die-struck, but there are some cast coins, and acombination of techniques was also used. The legends were generally in the Prakrit language and Brahmi script. However, the portrait coins (mostly in silver but also in lead) use a Dravidian language and Brahmi script. Punch-marked coins continued to circulate alongside the Satavahana issues. So, Statement 3 is not correct.

• The middle palaeolithic industry of central and peninsular India is sometimes referred to as the Nevasan industry after the site of Nevasa, where the pioneering archaeologist H. D. Sankalia firstdiscovered middle palaeolithic artefacts in a stratified context. The tools, which include a widevariety of scrapers, are made of smooth, fine-grained stone such as agate, jasper, and chalcedony. Nevasa is situated along the Pravara river in the Godavari river basin not in Tapi river basin. So, Pair 1 is not correct.
• Patne is located in Tapi valley and not in the Godavari river basin. Patne, the pre-historic site in Jalgaon, has evidence of middle and upper Paleolithic settlements Mesolithic tools. Patne excavation revealed stone tools, bones and even ostrich eggshells, which showed the existence of ostriches in this area around 25,000 to 40,000 years ago. So, Pair 2 is not correct.
• The transition from a hunting-gathering stage to the beginnings of settled agriculture can be traced to Chopani Mando in the Belan valley. This is based on the discovery of wild rice at Mesolithic levels of this site which was reported from similar levels at Damdama as well. Belan Valley is located in the Ganga river basin in the eastern part of Uttar Pradesh. So, Pair 3 is correct.

• The most significant source of the Mauryan period is undoubtedly the inscriptions of Ashoka. Ashoka’s inscriptions mark the beginning of Indian epigraphy. What sets Ashoka’s edicts apart is that they are issued in the first person, thereby revealing the voice and ideas of the king himself.
• The edicts are written in the Prakrit language and Brahmi script, and occasionally in the Kharoshti script (in the northwestern parts of the subcontinent). There are a few inscriptions in Greek and Aramaic as well. A bilingual Greek-Aramaic inscription was found at Shar-iKuna near Kandahar in southeast Afghanistan and one in Taxila. Hence statement 1 is correct.
• Ashoka himself had designated these edicts as Dhammalipi (Edicts of Piety). The Maski edict in the Prakrit language, carved in Brahmi script and dated 256 BC, remains a dharma shasana, an edict exhorting people to follow the tenets of Buddhism. The Maski edict clearly told the world that it was Ashoka who had got the inscriptions carved under the name ‘Devanampriya’. The inscription has a mention of ‘Devanampriya Asoka.’ Apart from associating the title ‘Devanampriya’ with Ashoka, the inscription suggests the spread of Mauryan rule up to the Krishna valley of north-eastern Karnataka. Hence statement 2 is correct.

• After the decline of the Mauryan Empire, northwest India was constantly under attack by various invaders from Central and West Asia. The Sakas (also written Sakas), alternatively known as Indo-Scythians, invaded northwest India from the first century BC onwards.
• There were five branches of the Shakas with their seats of power in different parts of India and Afghanistan.
  • One branch of the Shakas settled in Afghanistan. Prominent rulers of this branch were Vonones and Spalirises.
  • The second branch settled in Punjab with Taxila as its capital. Maues was a prominent ruler.
  • The third branch settled in Mathura, where they ruled for about two centuries. Azilises was a prominent ruler.
  • The fourth branch established its hold over western India, where they continued to rule till the 4th century CE.
  • The fifth branch of the Shakas established its power in the upper Deccan.
• The fourth branch of Sakas ruled for the maximum period owing to a flourishing economy based on the sea-borne trade in Gujarat and also issued a large number of silver coins. One of the famous Shaka rulers was Rudradaman 1 (CE 130-150). He ruled over Sindh, Kutch, and Gujarat and also recovered from the Satavahanas, Kokan, the Narmada valley, Malwa and Kathiawar. He is famous in history because of the repairs he undertook to improve Sudarsana lake in the semi-arid zone of Kathiawar. He was a great lover of Sanskrit and issued the first-ever long inscription in chaste Sanskrit.
• The Shakas did not meet effective resistance from the rulers and the masses of India. The king of Ujjain (around 58 BCE), effectively fought and succeeded in throwing the Shakas out. He called himself Vikramaditya and an era called Vikram-Samvat is reckoned from the event of his victory over the Shakas in 58 BCE. Hence statement 1 is not correct.
• From this time onwards, Vikramaditya became a coveted title, and whoever achieved anything great adopted this title, as the Roman emperors adopted the title Caesar in order to emphasize they are a great power.
• Kanishka, who was a Kushan ruler, extended his whole-hearted patronage to Buddhism. He also convened the fourth Buddhist council to discuss matters relating to Buddhist theology and doctrine. It was held at the Kundalavana monastery near Srinagar (Kashmir) under the presidency of Vasumitra. It was in this council that Buddhism was split into two schools – the Hinayana and the Mahayana. Hence statement 2 is not correct.
   

• The cultures were based on the use of copper and stone implements called Chalcolithic. Technologically, the Chalcolithic stage is applied to the pre-Harappan phase. However, in various parts of India, the Chalcolithic cultures followed the Bronze Age Harappa culture. The Chalcolithic people mostly used stone and copper objects, but they also occasionally used low-grade bronze and even iron.
• The Chalcolithic people domesticated cattle, sheep, and goats, which were tethered in the courtyard. In all probability, the domesticated animals were slaughtered for food and not used for milk and dairy products. The tribal people, such as the Gonds of Bastar, believe that milk is meant only to feed young animals, and, therefore, they do not milk their cattle. Consequently, the Chalcolithic people were not able to make full use of the animals. Hence, statement 1 is not correct.
• Ganeshwar is a Chalcolithic site in Rajasthan whose deposits are ascribed to 2800–2200 BC, they, by and large, predate the mature Harappan culture. Ganeshwar principally supplied copper objects to Harappa and did not receive much from it. The Ganeshwar people partly lived on agriculture and largely on hunting. Although their principal craft was the manufacture of copper objects, they were unable to urbanize. With its microliths and other stone tools, much of the Ganeshwar culture can be considered a pre-Harappan Chalcolithic culture that contributed to the making of the mature Harappan culture. Hence, statement 2 is not correct.

• The Maurya period constitutes a landmark in the system of taxation in ancient India. Kautilya names many taxes which were collected from peasants, artisans, and traders. This required a strong and efficient machinery for assessment, collection, and storage. The Mauryas attached greater importance to assessment than to storage and deposit. Hence statement 1 is correct.
• The samaharta was the highest officer in charge of assessment and collection, and the sannidhata was the chief custodian of the state treasury and storehouse. The assessor- cum-collector was far more important than the chief treasurer. The damage inflicted on the state by the first was thought to be more serious than any inflicted by the second. Hence statement 2 is not correct.
• The epigraphic evidence for the existence of rural storehouses shows that taxes were also collected in kind. These granaries were probably also meant to help local people in times of famine, drought, etc.
• From Ashoka’s inscription at Lumbini, it was inferred that land revenue was of two kinds — Bali and Bhaga. The assessment of the tax varied from region to region, from being on1/6th to a quarter of the produce of the land. 1/4th of the produce was paid in tax by the peasants. They also paid a tribute. Land tax (bhaga) was the main source of revenue. It was levied at 1/6^th of the produce. The Lumbini edict of Ashoka says that during his visit to the birthplace of the Buddha, he exempted the village from the payment of bali and reduced the payment of Bhaga to 1/8^th.

The 1^st century BCE Hathigumpha inscription of the Kalinga king Kharavela refers to his retrieving an image of a Jina. This inscription is the earliest epigraphic reference to image worship in Jainism. The Udayagiri and Khandagiri caves in Orissa are among the oldest long-standing centres of Jaina monasticism. A large number of Jaina images and inscriptions from the Mathura area indicate the popularity of Jainism. Kharavela, the Chedi king of Kalinga (in eastern India), claims in his Hathigumpha inscription to have defied a king named Satakarni in his second regnal year. He also claims two years later, he defeated the Rathikas of the Maratha country and the Bhojas of Vidarbha, who seem to have been subordinates of the Satavahanas. A possible indication of Nanda military victories in Kalinga is suggested by the later Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela, which mentions a king named Nanda building a canal and either conquering a place or taking away a Jaina shrine or image from Kalinga. So, Option (c) is correct.

• Hoysala temples are sometimes called hybrid or Vesara as their unique style seems neither completely Dravida nor nagara but somewhere in between. So, they are not only from the Dravida style of architecture, which had evolved. The Hoysala architects used their profound knowledge of temple architecture in different parts of India, and these temples have a basic Dravidian morphology but show a strong influence of the Bhumija mode widely used in Central India, the Nagara tradition of Northern and Western India, and the Karnataka Dravida modes favored by the Kalyani Chalukyas. Therefore, the Hoysala architects made considered and informed eclectic selections of features from other temple typologies, which were further modified and then complemented with their own particular innovation. The result was the birth of a completely novel Hoysala temple form. They are easily distinguishable from other medieval temples by their highly original star-like ground plans and a profusion of decorative carvings. So, Statement 1 is not correct.
• The remains of around a hundred temples have been found in southern Deccan, though only three remain. The Chennakeshava temples at Belur, Halebid and Somnathpuram. Perhaps the most characteristic feature of these temples is that they grow extremely complex with so many projecting angles emerging from the previously straightforward square temple that the plan of these temples starts looking like a star and is thus known as a stellate plan. So, Statement 2 is correct.

• The Mahajanapadas were sixteen kingdoms or oligarchic republics that existed in ancient India from the sixth to fourth centuries BCE during the second urbanisation period. Most of these kingdoms were monarchical in nature, but some of them, called Gana sangha, had an oligarcharical system of governance. In this system, unlike monarchies, where a hereditary king rules, the administration was run by an elected king with the help of a large council or assemblies comprising heads of all important clans and families. This system was certainly more democratic than monarchy, though the common man had no participation in the administration. The most important of these states was that of Vajjis, with their capital at Vaishali, which the Lichchhavis ruled. These oligarchies mainly existed in the foothills of the Himalayas. So, Statement 1 is not correct.
• As the rulers of the mahajanapadas were building huge forts and maintaining big armies, they needed more resources. And they needed officials to collect these. So, instead of depending on occasional gifts brought by people, as in the case of the raja of the janapadas, they started collecting regular taxes.
  • Taxes on crops were the most important. This was because most people were farmers. Usually, the tax was fixed at 1/6^th of what was produced. This was known as bhaga or a share.
  • There were taxes on crafts persons as well. These could have been in the form of labour. For example, a weaver or a smith may have had to work for a day every month for the king.
  • Herders were also expected to pay taxes in the form of animals and animal products.
  • There were also taxes on goods that were bought and sold through the trade.
  • Even hunters and gatherers also had to provide forest produce to the raja. So, Statement 2 is not correct.

• Paitkar paintings : One of the most ancient schools of painting in the country, Paitkar paintings are a creative expression of the state’s folk art. Popularly known as the scroll paintings of the east, Paitkar paintings are mostly based on themes drawn from Hindu epics like Mahabharata and Ramayana.
  • These traditional paintings tell the stories of the miracles performed by various gods and goddesses like Shiva and Durga. Paitkar painters usually make use of only primary colours like red, yellow and blue with palm leaves acting as a base.
  • The brushes used to paint are made from the hair of squirrels and goats. Most of the painted space in Paitkar paintings is occupied by human characters with elongated eyes, a prime characteristic of the Indian painting style.
  • Located in the eastern part of Jharkhand, Amadubi Village is home to families of talented Paitkar artists. The village is also known as the village of Paitkars and the art form is said to have originated here. The Santhal tribe of the state believes that Paitkar paintings can send wandering souls of dead people to heaven. Hence pair 1 is correctly matched.
• Phad is an indigenous painting style of the state of Rajasthan, India, that depicts the narratives of the folk deities of the state. This style of painting is the blend of Rajput and Mughal styles of painting. Originated hundreds of years ago, this fabled heritage of Bhilwara is done on a long piece of canvas called Phad. Mostly, the stories of the folk deity Pabuji and the Gurjar Warrior, Devnarayanji are depicted on Phads.
  • Phad paintings are very detailed. Every inch of the canvas is used. Since the ancient stories are depicted in the paintings, Phads have a lot of human figures in them. The size and color of which depends upon the role and position they had. These paintings are done on clothes.
  • A thick fine paste of wheat/rice flour, prepared by boiling the mixture in water, is applied to the cloth which is then dried in sunlight. The cloth is then rubbed with Mohra|(a stone device) to bring out the smoothness and shine it. Now the cloth is ready to be painted. The colors used in Phad are all-natural, obtained from various plants and vegetable extracts. Earthen colors are used to bring the acrylic effect. Hence pair 2 is correctly matched.
• Orissa Pattachitra is an ancient painting art form of rural Orissa that has been in existence for many centuries. The word pattachitra has evolved from the Sanskrit words ‘Patta’ and ‘Chitra’. In the Sanskrit language, the word Patta means “Canvas” or “A Piece of Cloth”, and Chitra means picture.
  • Orissa Pattachitra (Traditional Indian Painting) is a painting especially inspired by Lord Jagannath and temple tradition, the Puri district.
  • Themes for these paintings range from the events of Krishna’s life and the Avatars of Vishnu to the epic tales of Ramayana and Mahabharata.
  • The method of production for Pattachitra is very long and the entire process is completed in many steps, which include:
    (i) Preparation of Patta
    (ii) Preparation of Pigments
    (iii) Motif Selection and Layout
    (iv) Painting
  • Orissa Pattachitra paintings hold a Geographical Indication tag. Hence pair 3 is not correctly matched.

• Social Life of Rig Vedic Society
  • The Rig Vedic society was patriarchal. The basic unit of society was the family or kula. The head of the family was known as grahapathi.
  • Monogamy was generally practiced while polygamy was prevalent among the royal and noble families.
  • The wife took care of the household and participated in all the major ceremonies. Women were given equal opportunities as men for their spiritual and intellectual development. Hence statement 2 is not correct.
  • There were women poets like Apala, Viswavara, Ghosa and Lopamudra during the Rig Vedic period. Women could even attend the popular assemblies. There was no child marriage and the practice of Sati was absent. Hence statement 3 is correct.
  • Both men and women wore upper and lower garments made of cotton and wool. A variety of ornaments were used by both men and women. Wheat and barley, milk and its products like curd and ghee, and vegetables and fruits were the chief articles of food. The eating of cow’s meat was prohibited since it was a sacred animal. Chariot racing, horse racing, dicing, music, and dance were the favourite pastimes. The social divisions were not rigid during the Rig Vedic period as it was in the later Vedic period.
• Religion
  • The Rig Vedic Aryans worshiped natural forces like earth, fire, wind, rain and thunder. They personified these natural forces into many gods and worshipped them.
  • The important Rig Vedic gods were Prithvi (Earth), Agni (Fire), Vayu (Wind), Varuna (Rain), and Indra (Thunder). Indra was the most popular among them during the early Vedic period. Next in importance to Indra was Agni who was regarded as an intermediary between the gods and people. Varuna was supposed to be the upholder of the natural order.
  • There were also female gods like Aditi and Ushas. o There were no temples and no idol worship during the early Vedic period. Hence statement 1 is correct.
  • Prayers were offered to the gods in the expectation of rewards. Ghee, milk and grain were given as offerings. Elaborate rituals were followed during the worship.

• Sangam literature can be dated from its earliest to the first two centuries CE. The poets were men and women drawn from all classes in society and they were richly rewarded for their compositions. The composition of the texts took place during the three Sangams. The word Sangam refers to a confluence or academy. Hence statement 2 is not correct.
• The three Sangams were patronized by Pandyan rulers and were called the Talai Sangam, Idai Sangam and Kadai Sangam respectively meaning the beginning, middle and end Sangams. Hence statement 1 is correct.
• Sangam literature is a rich source because it describes a range of activities that were related to agriculture. Many secondary production activities, like the making of sugar from sugar cane, find rich descriptions in Sangam literature. Primary agrarian activities like the cultivation of ragi and sugarcane, the harvesting of grain and smaller activities like the drying of grain are also described in Sangam literature.
• The compositions of the first two Sangams are lost. All the texts that make up the Ettutogai come from the Kadai or end Sangam.
• The Sangam literature consists of Tolkappiyam, Ettutogai, Pattuppattu, Pathinenkilkanakku and the two epics Silappathigaram and Manimegalai. Among these the Tolkappiyam authored by Tolkappiyar was the earliest work, provides the information on Social, Economic and political conditions of the Sangam Age along with the Tamil grammar. Ettutogai were the eight Anthologies consisting of eight works. Both Ettutogai and Pattuppattu were divided into two main groups – Aham (love) and Puram (valour).

• The reign of Chandragupta II saw the high watermark of the Gupta Empire. Chandragupta II adopted the title of Vikramaditya. An important incident that took place during his reign was the visit of Fa-Hien, a Chinese pilgrim, who came to India in search of Buddhist texts. Numerous scholars adorned the court of Chandragupta II at Ujjain.
• It is believed that Chandragupta II was deeply interested in the art and culture and Navratnas that adorned his court. A few of them are as follows:
  • Amarasimha: He was a Sanskrit lexicographer and a poet.
  • Dhanvantri: He was believed to be a great Physician who worked in the court of Chandragupta II.
  • Harisena: He is known to have composed the Allahabad pillar Inscription. In his old age, Harisena was in the court of Chandragupta II and described him as a Nobel king.
  • Kalidasa: Kalidasa is known to be an immortal poet and playwright of India. o Kahapanka: He was known to be an astrologer working in the court of Chandragupta II.
  • Sanku: He was in the field of architecture and contributed a lot to the beautiful structures during the Chandragupta II reign.
  • Varahamihira: he wrote several books, and three of the most important were: Brihat Samhita, Panchasiddhantika, and Brihat Jataka.
• Hiuen Tsang or Xuanzang was a Chinese Buddhist monk who traveled overland from China to India during the reign of King Harsha Vardhan to obtain Buddhist scriptures.
• Hence option (b) is the correct answer.

In Ancient Indian, the Gupta empire was established in the mid 3^rd century A.D and lasted till 543 A.D. The Gupta empire reached its prominence in 320 A.D. The founder of the Gupta empire was Sri Gupta. The period of 300-600 CE sources includes inscriptions—mostly on stone, some on copper plates—of the imperial Guptas and those of contemporary dynasties such as the Vakatakas, Kadambas, Varmans, and Hunas. The Kanva dynasty had a Brahmanic origin. The dynasty was named after the gotra of the ruler Kanva. Vasudeva Kanva founded the Kanva dynasty. Kanva dynasty, also called Kanvayanas, were the successors of the Shungas in the North Indian kingdom of Magadha, who ruled about 72–28 BCE. Thus, Kanva dynasty was not the comtemporary of Gupta Empire. So, Option (b) is correct.

Panini (5^th/4^th century BCE) was the precursor of other Sanskrit grammarians, such as Katyayana (4^th century BCE) and Patanjali (2^nd century BCE). Both acknowledge their respect for him by giving him the honorific Bhagavan. Patanjali describes Panini as a great teacher and Ashtadhyayi as a vast ocean of learning (mahat-shastra-ugha). He states that students had become careless and indifferent towards grammar study and that Panini wrote to change this attitude. Panini is known as the father of Sanskrit and is considered the earliest known Indian linguist. So, Option (a) is correct.

The Marathas had an important position in the administrative and military systems of Ahmednagar and Bijapur. Their power and influence in the affairs of government had grown as the Mughals advanced toward the Deccan. After the fall of Malik Amber, a number of influential Maratha families, like the Mores, the Ghatges, the Nimalkars etc., became dominant. The Mughal emperor Aurangzeb was anxiously watching the rise of a Maratha power near the Mughal frontiers. 3 phases of Aurangzeb's Deccan policy:

• The First phase lasted till 1668, during which the main attempt was to recover from Bijapur the territories belonging to the Ahmadnagar state surrendered to it by the treaty of 1636
• The Second phase lasted till 1684, during which the major danger in the Deccan was considered to be the Marathas, and efforts were made to pressure Bijapur and Golconda into joining hands with the Mughals against Shivaji and then against his son, Shambaji.
• The last phase began when Aurangzeb despaired of getting the cooperation of Bijapur and Golconda against the Marathas and decided to destroy the Marathas. For this, it was necessary first to conquer Bijapur and Golconda. So, Statement 1 is correct.
• Abul Hasan Qutb Shah ruled Golkonda at that time. He was a Shia, had handed over his administration to two Brahmana ministers, Madanna and Akanna and had expressed his displeasure at the occupation of Bijapur by the Mughals. Aurangzeb was dissatisfied with all that. He deputed prince Shah Alam to attack Golkonda. Besides this political motive, he desired to annex these states because their rulers were Shias who owed nominal allegiance to the ruler of Abbasaid-Khalifas. Besides, the states of the Deccan were wealthy. Aurangzeb was tempted to conquer them to possess their wealth. Therefore, Aurangzeb was not satisfied simply by their acceptance of his suzerainty, but he desired to annex them to the Mughal empire. So, Statement 2 is correct.
• In 1680 Aurangzeb sent a formidable army under his son Akbar to subdue the rebellious Rajput kings, but the emperor had not reckoned with his son's traitorous conduct. Akbar had declared himself the emperor but was compelled to flee to the Deccan, where he enlisted the help of Shivaji's son, Sambhaji. Aurangzeb decided to take to the field himself and to curtail the rebellious activities of his son Akbar, who had taken refuge in the Deccan, and he sent his son into exile in Persia. Aurangzeb's Deccan policy was a total failure, and he destroyed the Decan kingdom. It was a political error of the Mughals, and this was a barrier between the Marathas and the Mughals. So, Statement 3 is correct.

• The Gupta Empire was the greatest in the fourth century AD India and has been described as a golden age in India History The Guptas tended to allow kings to remain serving in a slave-like manner; unlike the Mauryas, they did not consolidate every kingdom into a single administrative unit. This would be the model for later Mughal rule and British rule built off of the Mughal paradigm. During the Gupta period, the administration was more decentralized than the Mauryas but more centralized than Sungas. So, Statement 1 is not correct.
• During the Gupta period, the state was divided into provinces called desa or bhukti, which turned into smaller units, the Pradesa or Visaya. The provinces were governed by kumaramatyas, high imperial (royal) officers or members of the royal family. The administrative divisions helped the rulers to control their territories systematically. The Guptas organized a system of provincial and local administration. The Empire was divided into divisions called 'Bhukth,' and each Bhukti was placed under the charge of a 'Uparika.' The Bhuktis were divided into districts or Visayas, and each Vishaya was under a Vishayapati. The Vishayapatis were generally members of the royal family. They were assisted in the work by a council of representatives. The Guptas organized a system of provincial and local administration like divisions (bhuktis), bhuktis were divided into districts (Vishayas), and Vishayas were divided into Vithis, which again were divided into villages. The village was the smallest unit of administration. Therefore, Pradesa was not a larger administration unit than Bhukti. So, Statement 2 is not correct.
• The administrative system during the Gupta dynasty found that the court's decision or judgment was based on legal texts, social customs prevailing during those times, and the discretion of the King. The King was the highest court of appeal. The guilds of artisans, merchants, and others were governed by their laws. The judicial system was developed, and several law books were written during the Guptas. Several law books were compiled in this period. And For the first time, civil and criminal laws were demarcated. Theft and adultery came under criminal law, and disputes regarding various property types came under civil law. So, Statement 3 is correct.
• During the period of the Guptas, the duties of revenue administration were carried out by officials like Viniyuktaka, Rajuka, Uparika, and Dashparadhika. Land revalue was an important source of income for the reign of the Guptas. Land tax was levied on cultivators who had no land rights. It was one-sixth of the total produce. There were also other income sources like income tax, such as Bhaga, custom duty, mint duty, inheritance tax, and gift tax. Hence, the Land tax and excise duties were collected during the administration of the Gupta Empire. So, Statement 4 is correct.

• There is no direct mention of writing in Vedic literature. Still, references to poetic metres, grammatical and phonetic terms, very large numbers, and complex arithmetical calculations in later Vedic texts are taken by some historians to indicate the possibility that writing may have been known at the time. So, Statement 1 is correct.
• References to the sabha and samiti continue in later Vedic texts. For instance, in the Shatapatha Brahmana, the king prays: 'May the samiti and the sabha, the two daughters of Prajapati, concurrently aid me.' But with the increased royal power, the assemblies' power must have declined. So, Statement 2 is not correct.
• Later Vedic texts indicate a close relationship between the king and his Purohita (his Brahmana priest and counsellor). Purohita means 'one who is put in front' (by the king). The relationship between the king and Purohita is likened to that between earth and heaven. The king is considered the feminine, subordinate party in this relationship. The importance of the Purohita is graphically illustrated in the Rajasuya ceremony, where he introduces the king to the assembled people and announces: 'This man is your king. Soma is the king of us Brahmanas. The system of administration seems to have been fairly rudimentary. So, Statement 3 is correct.

The Ulatbansi compositions of Kabir are intrinsically upside-down sayings. They are written in a form in which everyday meanings are inverted. They express difficulty in capturing the nature of the ultimate reality. They express Kabir's mystical experiences. Saint Kabir lived in the fifteenth century. Though not a Sikh himself, his verses constitute the largest non-Sikh contribution to the Adi Granth. Like other Bhakti and Sufi poets –Tulsi Sahib and Soami Ji – Kabir often used symbolism and the 'upside-down language' or ulatbansi. So, Option (d) is correct.

• Iltutmish organized his trusted nobles or officers into a group of "Forty. Iltutmish established the 'Group of Forty' Turkan-i-Chahalgani. These were Turkish amirs (nobles) who advised and helped the Sultan administer the Sultanate. After the death of Iltutmish, this group assumed great power in its hands. For a few years, they decided to select Sultans one after the other. Balban finally eliminated the group. Turkan-i-Chahalgani was is organised by Qutbuddin Aibak. So, Pair 1 is not correct.
• Balban ruled in an autocratic manner and worked hard to elevate the position of the Sultan, and he did not allow any noble to assume great power. He even formulated the theory of kingship. Balban maintained a magnificent court. He refused to laugh and joke in the court and even gave up drinking wine so that no one may see him in a non-serious mood. He also insisted on the court's ceremony of sijada (prostration) and paibos (kissing of the monarch's feet). Hence, Iltutmish has not insisted on the ceremony of sijada. Therefore, Balban insisted on paibos (kissing the monarch's feet) in the court. So, Pair 2 is not correct, and Pair 3 is correct.
• Jalaluddin Khalji laid the foundation of the Khalji dynasty. Alauddin Khalji was Jalaluddin's ambitious nephew and son-in-law. He helped his uncle in his struggle for power and was appointed Amir-i-Tuzuk (Master of Ceremonies). Alauddin Khalji has made an important policy initiative on Market Regulations. Alauddin set up three different markets for different commodities in Delhi. These markets were the grain market (Mandi), cloth market (Sarai Adl) and the market for horses, enslaved people, cattle, etc. And to ensure the implementation, Alauddin appointed a superintendent Shahna-i-Mandi, who an intelligence officer assisted. Apart from Shahna-i-Mandi, Alauddin received daily market reports from two independent sources, braid (intelligence officer) and munhiyans (secret spies). So, Pair 4 is correct.

• Ghiyas-ud-din Balban (1266 to 1287 AD), the ninth Sultan of the Mamluk dynasty of Delhi, was one of the most powerful Sultans. He was a member of Iltutmish's famed group of 40 Turkic slaves. He adopted a policy of consolidation rather than expansion. So, Statement 1 is not correct.
• The silver and copper coins were mainly in circulation for cash transactions during the period of the Delhi Sultanate. Iltutmish and not Balban introduced the two coins, the Tanka (silver coin) and the Jital (copper coin), which became the basis for the subsequent coinage of the Delhi Sultanate. The value of coinage fluctuated with the change in the prices of metals. So, Statement 2 is not correct.
• Qutub-ud-din Aibak and not Balbun was referred to as Lakh Baksh. Lakh Baksh is usually referred to as those who give away property and wealth to the needy and poor. Because of his generosity and gave liberal donations, Qutub-ud-din Aibak was called Lakh Baksh. So, Statement 3 is not correct.
• Balban ruled in an autocratic manner and worked hard to elevate the position of the Sultan. He introduced a new theory of kingship and redefined the relations between the Sultan and nobility. He did not allow any noble to assume great power. So, Statement 4 is correct.

• Sri Vallabhacharya (c. 1479 – 1531 CE) was a devotional philosopher who founded the Pushtimarg sect in India, following the philosophy of Shuddha Advaita (Pure Non-dualism). Shuddadvaita is the purely non-dual philosophy propounded by him. It was a Hindu Vaishnava tradition that focused on the worship of Krishna. Hence statement 1 is not correct.
• Dadu Dayal (c. 1544-1603 CE) was a significant representative of the Nirguna Saint tradition in North India (Gujarat & Rajasthan). Nirgun is a form of aniconic worship of the formless as opposed to the saguna tradition, which is the worship of religious icons and deities with form. Hence statement 2 is correct.
  • Dadu means brother, and Dayal means the compassionate one; later, his followers came to be known as the Dadupanthis, who set up ashrams known as Thambas.
• Surdas (c. 1483-1563 CE) was a disciple of the Vallabhacharya. He was a blind poet whose songs were centered around Krishna. His Sursagar recounts the exploits of Krishna during his childhood and youth with gentle affection and delightfulness. Hence statement 3 is correct.

• The Gupta period is remarkable for the production of secular literature, which consisted of a fair degree of ornate court poetry. Bhasa was an important poet in the early phase of the Gupta period and wrote thirteen plays. He wrote in Sanskrit, but his dramas also contain a substantial amount of Prakrit.
• Bhasa was the author of a drama called Dradiracharudatta, which was later refashioned as Mrichchhakatika or the Little Clay Cart by Shudraka. The play deals with the love affair of a poor brahmana trader with a beautiful courtesan and is considered one of the best works of ancient drama. Hence option (d) is the correct answer.
• In his plays Bhasa uses the term yavanika for the curtain, which suggests Greek contact. However, what has made the Gupta period particularly famous is the work of Kalidasa who lived in the second half of the fourth and the first half of the fifth century. He was the greatest poet of classical Sanskrit literature and wrote Abhijnanashakuntalam which is very highly regarded in world literature.
• It relates the love story of King Dushyanta and Shakuntala, whose son Bharata appears as a famous ruler. Shakuntalam was one of the earliest Indian works to be translated into European languages, the other work being the Bhagavadgita. The plays produced in India during the Gupta period have two common features.
• First, they are all comedies; no tragedies are found. Secondly, characters of the higher and lower classes do not speak the same language; women and Shudras featured in these plays use Prakrit whereas the higher classes use Sanskrit. We may recall that Ashoka and the Satavahanas used Prakrit as the state language.

• The Vijayanagara Empire was based in the Deccan Plateau region of South India. It was established in 1336 by the brothers Harihara I and Bukka Raya I of the Sangama dynasty. The Sangama dynasty ruled between 1336 – 1485 CE. The Sangama dynasty was founded by Harihara I and Bukka. Their father had been taken prisoner in 1327 by Muhammad bin Tughluq. They founded Vijayanagara in 1336.The Saluva dynasty ruled between 1485 – 1505 CE. The Saluva dynasty was created by the Saluvas, who by historical tradition were natives of the Kalyani region of northern Karnataka in modern India. The Tuluva dynasty ruled between 1491 – 1570 CE. Krishna Dev Raya was an important ruler of this dynasty. Tuluva is the name of the third ruling dynasty of the Vijayanagara Empire. The dynasty traces its patrilineal ancestry to Tulu-speaking Nagavamshi Kshatriyas.The Aravidu dynasty ruled between 1542 – 1646 CE. Its founder was Tirumala Deva Raya, whose brother Rama Raya had been the masterful regent of the last ruler of the previous dynasty.
  • At Talikota in 1565, the ruler Rama Raya was killed. Though the Vijaynagar kingdom continued to exist for almost a hundred more years. Its size decreased and the Rayas no longer remained important in the politics of South India.
• Hence option (a) is the correct answer.