The ashrama system, comprising Brahmacharya (student), Grihastha (householder), Vanaprastha (hermit), and Sannyasa (ascetic), began to structure a man’s life in Aryan society.
The caste system solidified into the hereditary four-fold varna system—Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras—reducing social mobility compared to the Early Vedic Period.
Painted Grey Ware (PGW), widespread during the Later Vedic Age, along with excavations at sites like Hastinapur and Kausambi, indicates early urban settlements.
The Aryans expanded eastward from the Sapta Sindhu region to the Ganga-Yamuna Doab and further into the Gangetic plains, facilitated by iron tools and fertile land.
The growth of urban centres led to expanded trade and commerce, with guilds (shrenis) organising artisans and traders, marking economic specialisation.
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