Notes: Techniques of Data Collection- 2 | Sociology Mains Optional for UPSC 2024 PDF Download

 Page 1


 
 
3. Research Methods and 
Analysis 
b. Techniques of data collection. 
Part - 2 
  
Page 2


 
 
3. Research Methods and 
Analysis 
b. Techniques of data collection. 
Part - 2 
  
 
 
PRIMARY SOURCES  
(continued) 
 
QUESTIONAIRRE: 
List of pre-set questions generally repeated to every member of sample. It can be administered 
through 
1) Structured or unstructured interview 
2) Postal questionnaire: response rate poor but cost effective 
3) Administering questions to a group 
4) Over the telephone 
5) Via email or online method (problem of digital divide) 
Some questions may be open ended other close ended. Likert scale can be employed. 
Advantages of questionnaire 
Practical, can collect large volume of data, relatively inexpensive, relatively less researcher’s bias, 
quantitative data collected is more reliable, helps produce causal relations. 
Disadvantages: 
Same response might not mean same meaning, different words convey different meaning in 
different societies, researcher imposition (assumption-researcher knows what is important), order of 
the questions can be flawed, unwillingness and inaccuracies of respondents to give accurate replies, 
feminists say that it is important to include viewpoints of respondents as well. 
 
INTERVIEWS: 
TYPES: structured ( pre-set), unstructured- conversational ; most interviews are mix; Ann Oakley: 
very unstructured interviews- collaborative i.e. becoming friends with respondents.  
Styles 
- Non directive: avoiding expressions of disapproval or approval. Howard Becker says it is 
polite but bland. 
- Aggressive: taking positions and showing opinionated attitude as people open up on prying. 
Howard Becker recommends it but says that if overuse it can antagonize respondent. Only 
be used once and one on one. 
- Individual interviews: confidentiality, no influence, easier to build rapport 
- Group interview (interactionists, interpretative and critical sociologists)- multiple voices, 
observe interactions 
- Focus group: Alan Bryman says that when several members in a group discuss a topic that 
has been carefully specified construct meaning as a group, understand participants reactions 
and responses to each other is called focus group study 
                   It helps in greater understanding of feelings, interviewer interaction is minimised, 
naturalistic, egalitarian and unstructured.  
Advantages: 
 
Observation: 
Positivists: social world can be objectively observed 
Interactionists: observe social world to understand meanings in interactions 
Limitations:  
- Entry may be restricted of researcher ( ex in tribal grp or in cabinet meetings) 
- Presence of observer may impact behaviour 
- Observers can have difficulty in understanding ex why people are vegetarian 
- Dangerous to be present in certain situation 
Page 3


 
 
3. Research Methods and 
Analysis 
b. Techniques of data collection. 
Part - 2 
  
 
 
PRIMARY SOURCES  
(continued) 
 
QUESTIONAIRRE: 
List of pre-set questions generally repeated to every member of sample. It can be administered 
through 
1) Structured or unstructured interview 
2) Postal questionnaire: response rate poor but cost effective 
3) Administering questions to a group 
4) Over the telephone 
5) Via email or online method (problem of digital divide) 
Some questions may be open ended other close ended. Likert scale can be employed. 
Advantages of questionnaire 
Practical, can collect large volume of data, relatively inexpensive, relatively less researcher’s bias, 
quantitative data collected is more reliable, helps produce causal relations. 
Disadvantages: 
Same response might not mean same meaning, different words convey different meaning in 
different societies, researcher imposition (assumption-researcher knows what is important), order of 
the questions can be flawed, unwillingness and inaccuracies of respondents to give accurate replies, 
feminists say that it is important to include viewpoints of respondents as well. 
 
INTERVIEWS: 
TYPES: structured ( pre-set), unstructured- conversational ; most interviews are mix; Ann Oakley: 
very unstructured interviews- collaborative i.e. becoming friends with respondents.  
Styles 
- Non directive: avoiding expressions of disapproval or approval. Howard Becker says it is 
polite but bland. 
- Aggressive: taking positions and showing opinionated attitude as people open up on prying. 
Howard Becker recommends it but says that if overuse it can antagonize respondent. Only 
be used once and one on one. 
- Individual interviews: confidentiality, no influence, easier to build rapport 
- Group interview (interactionists, interpretative and critical sociologists)- multiple voices, 
observe interactions 
- Focus group: Alan Bryman says that when several members in a group discuss a topic that 
has been carefully specified construct meaning as a group, understand participants reactions 
and responses to each other is called focus group study 
                   It helps in greater understanding of feelings, interviewer interaction is minimised, 
naturalistic, egalitarian and unstructured.  
Advantages: 
 
Observation: 
Positivists: social world can be objectively observed 
Interactionists: observe social world to understand meanings in interactions 
Limitations:  
- Entry may be restricted of researcher ( ex in tribal grp or in cabinet meetings) 
- Presence of observer may impact behaviour 
- Observers can have difficulty in understanding ex why people are vegetarian 
- Dangerous to be present in certain situation 
 
 
- Crowded settings 
 
-----Ethnography----- 
- Long term observation of certain group in a social setting  
- Study of way of life 
- Introduced by Anthropologists like Malinowsky 
- Involves 1) Participant observation      2) In depth interviews          3)studying qualitative 
documents 
 
Participant observation 
1) OVERT: identity revealed (morally correct, may stop studying objectively) (William Whyte) 
2) COVERT: identity not revealed (may not influence behaviour, personal safety at risk, 
authorities may seek cooperation if researcher manage to get into close group like criminals, 
difficult to gain trust) 
Advantages: 
- Researcher self is not imposed, symbiotic interactions can be closely observed, extended 
period of observations means behavioural changes can be observed, helps in generating 
new hypothesis, high ecological validity, helps in seeing how members construct society 
around themselves (post constructionist point of view) 
 
Disadvantages: 
- Time consuming, can study only a small group, researcher personal life can be impacted, 
researcher may have to engage in activity they dislike (or even illegal ones), safety issue, 
higher or powerful class may not be studied, difficult to become part of a group sometimes, 
legal moral issues regarding observing covertly , studies can’t be replicated, researcher may 
stop noticing nuances after sometime, validity may be impacted by presence of researcher 
(can be corrected by validation by members, triangulation, grounded theory i.e. theory 
formed from analysis of data). 
 
Critical ethnography: 
 
- It is used both to develop and test theories simultaneously i.e. oppressed studied and 
interviewed about impact of oppression simultaneously; forwarded by critical school 
- Phil Carspecken says that critical ethnography is concerned about social inequalities and 
directed towards positive social change, 
- It helps in revealing oppression and educate people about the oppressions 
Martyn Hammersley is hostile to this method as he says how subjects of theory can check validity of 
theory. Patti Lather also says that critical ethnography seems circular as it is building a theory which 
is also used as an evidence 
Patti Lather has suggested way out of circle by 
1) Triangulation (cross checking with different methods i.e. quantitative data of a survey can be 
checked by in-depth interviews) 
2) Construct validity  
3) Face validity (testing the findings on few members) 
Page 4


 
 
3. Research Methods and 
Analysis 
b. Techniques of data collection. 
Part - 2 
  
 
 
PRIMARY SOURCES  
(continued) 
 
QUESTIONAIRRE: 
List of pre-set questions generally repeated to every member of sample. It can be administered 
through 
1) Structured or unstructured interview 
2) Postal questionnaire: response rate poor but cost effective 
3) Administering questions to a group 
4) Over the telephone 
5) Via email or online method (problem of digital divide) 
Some questions may be open ended other close ended. Likert scale can be employed. 
Advantages of questionnaire 
Practical, can collect large volume of data, relatively inexpensive, relatively less researcher’s bias, 
quantitative data collected is more reliable, helps produce causal relations. 
Disadvantages: 
Same response might not mean same meaning, different words convey different meaning in 
different societies, researcher imposition (assumption-researcher knows what is important), order of 
the questions can be flawed, unwillingness and inaccuracies of respondents to give accurate replies, 
feminists say that it is important to include viewpoints of respondents as well. 
 
INTERVIEWS: 
TYPES: structured ( pre-set), unstructured- conversational ; most interviews are mix; Ann Oakley: 
very unstructured interviews- collaborative i.e. becoming friends with respondents.  
Styles 
- Non directive: avoiding expressions of disapproval or approval. Howard Becker says it is 
polite but bland. 
- Aggressive: taking positions and showing opinionated attitude as people open up on prying. 
Howard Becker recommends it but says that if overuse it can antagonize respondent. Only 
be used once and one on one. 
- Individual interviews: confidentiality, no influence, easier to build rapport 
- Group interview (interactionists, interpretative and critical sociologists)- multiple voices, 
observe interactions 
- Focus group: Alan Bryman says that when several members in a group discuss a topic that 
has been carefully specified construct meaning as a group, understand participants reactions 
and responses to each other is called focus group study 
                   It helps in greater understanding of feelings, interviewer interaction is minimised, 
naturalistic, egalitarian and unstructured.  
Advantages: 
 
Observation: 
Positivists: social world can be objectively observed 
Interactionists: observe social world to understand meanings in interactions 
Limitations:  
- Entry may be restricted of researcher ( ex in tribal grp or in cabinet meetings) 
- Presence of observer may impact behaviour 
- Observers can have difficulty in understanding ex why people are vegetarian 
- Dangerous to be present in certain situation 
 
 
- Crowded settings 
 
-----Ethnography----- 
- Long term observation of certain group in a social setting  
- Study of way of life 
- Introduced by Anthropologists like Malinowsky 
- Involves 1) Participant observation      2) In depth interviews          3)studying qualitative 
documents 
 
Participant observation 
1) OVERT: identity revealed (morally correct, may stop studying objectively) (William Whyte) 
2) COVERT: identity not revealed (may not influence behaviour, personal safety at risk, 
authorities may seek cooperation if researcher manage to get into close group like criminals, 
difficult to gain trust) 
Advantages: 
- Researcher self is not imposed, symbiotic interactions can be closely observed, extended 
period of observations means behavioural changes can be observed, helps in generating 
new hypothesis, high ecological validity, helps in seeing how members construct society 
around themselves (post constructionist point of view) 
 
Disadvantages: 
- Time consuming, can study only a small group, researcher personal life can be impacted, 
researcher may have to engage in activity they dislike (or even illegal ones), safety issue, 
higher or powerful class may not be studied, difficult to become part of a group sometimes, 
legal moral issues regarding observing covertly , studies can’t be replicated, researcher may 
stop noticing nuances after sometime, validity may be impacted by presence of researcher 
(can be corrected by validation by members, triangulation, grounded theory i.e. theory 
formed from analysis of data). 
 
Critical ethnography: 
 
- It is used both to develop and test theories simultaneously i.e. oppressed studied and 
interviewed about impact of oppression simultaneously; forwarded by critical school 
- Phil Carspecken says that critical ethnography is concerned about social inequalities and 
directed towards positive social change, 
- It helps in revealing oppression and educate people about the oppressions 
Martyn Hammersley is hostile to this method as he says how subjects of theory can check validity of 
theory. Patti Lather also says that critical ethnography seems circular as it is building a theory which 
is also used as an evidence 
Patti Lather has suggested way out of circle by 
1) Triangulation (cross checking with different methods i.e. quantitative data of a survey can be 
checked by in-depth interviews) 
2) Construct validity  
3) Face validity (testing the findings on few members) 
 
 
4) Catalytic validity (For her, catalytic validity refers to research that not only displays 'the 
reality-altering impact of the inquiry process' but also empowers the research subjects to 
'gain self-understanding and self-direction') 
Longitudinal research 
Studying a group over an extended period collecting data on them at intervals 
- Used to measure change in attitude 
- Generally involved following a sample  
- At times a particular age group is chosen 
- Alan Bryman: Many sociological researches have longitudinal aspect 
But difficulty in finding accessible and cooperative sample and behaviour change due to people 
being conscious  
 
 
SECONDARY SOURCES: 
Data that has already been produced i.e. census, letters, diaries, surveys, newspapers, 
autobiographies, victimisation or self-report.  
- Can be contemporary or historical 
- Used when primary data is tough to produce 
- Validity and reliability vary from source to source 
- POSITIVISTs like Durkheim used secondary data uncritically 
- Phenomenonologists discard the secondary sources that give statistics as they are assumed 
to be social construct and are open to interpretation. Ex: Cicourel thought that youth from 
lower class are likely to be seen as delinquent. 
- CONFLICT THEORISTS like Ian Miles and John Irvine says that not all data is fabricated but 
figures criticising authorities may not be produced or publish  
But Alan Bryman says that not all official data is incorrect. 
Life Documents: 
Personal records of individual’s experiences and social actions like Diaries, photos, letters, 
biographies, memoirs, suicide notes, films, paintings, music, e mails etc 
- Polish peasant study 
- Ken Plummer says that life documentaries are declining as they are unrepresentative 
- They are open to interpretation and may reflect only a floating situation like 
anger/happiness 
 
VISUAL ANALYSIS: 
It involves the examination of different types of secondary sources from mass media to life 
documents and historical resources. It can be divided into moving and still images. Ex how 
photojournalism influences perception of important historical events or study of advertisements. 
Page 5


 
 
3. Research Methods and 
Analysis 
b. Techniques of data collection. 
Part - 2 
  
 
 
PRIMARY SOURCES  
(continued) 
 
QUESTIONAIRRE: 
List of pre-set questions generally repeated to every member of sample. It can be administered 
through 
1) Structured or unstructured interview 
2) Postal questionnaire: response rate poor but cost effective 
3) Administering questions to a group 
4) Over the telephone 
5) Via email or online method (problem of digital divide) 
Some questions may be open ended other close ended. Likert scale can be employed. 
Advantages of questionnaire 
Practical, can collect large volume of data, relatively inexpensive, relatively less researcher’s bias, 
quantitative data collected is more reliable, helps produce causal relations. 
Disadvantages: 
Same response might not mean same meaning, different words convey different meaning in 
different societies, researcher imposition (assumption-researcher knows what is important), order of 
the questions can be flawed, unwillingness and inaccuracies of respondents to give accurate replies, 
feminists say that it is important to include viewpoints of respondents as well. 
 
INTERVIEWS: 
TYPES: structured ( pre-set), unstructured- conversational ; most interviews are mix; Ann Oakley: 
very unstructured interviews- collaborative i.e. becoming friends with respondents.  
Styles 
- Non directive: avoiding expressions of disapproval or approval. Howard Becker says it is 
polite but bland. 
- Aggressive: taking positions and showing opinionated attitude as people open up on prying. 
Howard Becker recommends it but says that if overuse it can antagonize respondent. Only 
be used once and one on one. 
- Individual interviews: confidentiality, no influence, easier to build rapport 
- Group interview (interactionists, interpretative and critical sociologists)- multiple voices, 
observe interactions 
- Focus group: Alan Bryman says that when several members in a group discuss a topic that 
has been carefully specified construct meaning as a group, understand participants reactions 
and responses to each other is called focus group study 
                   It helps in greater understanding of feelings, interviewer interaction is minimised, 
naturalistic, egalitarian and unstructured.  
Advantages: 
 
Observation: 
Positivists: social world can be objectively observed 
Interactionists: observe social world to understand meanings in interactions 
Limitations:  
- Entry may be restricted of researcher ( ex in tribal grp or in cabinet meetings) 
- Presence of observer may impact behaviour 
- Observers can have difficulty in understanding ex why people are vegetarian 
- Dangerous to be present in certain situation 
 
 
- Crowded settings 
 
-----Ethnography----- 
- Long term observation of certain group in a social setting  
- Study of way of life 
- Introduced by Anthropologists like Malinowsky 
- Involves 1) Participant observation      2) In depth interviews          3)studying qualitative 
documents 
 
Participant observation 
1) OVERT: identity revealed (morally correct, may stop studying objectively) (William Whyte) 
2) COVERT: identity not revealed (may not influence behaviour, personal safety at risk, 
authorities may seek cooperation if researcher manage to get into close group like criminals, 
difficult to gain trust) 
Advantages: 
- Researcher self is not imposed, symbiotic interactions can be closely observed, extended 
period of observations means behavioural changes can be observed, helps in generating 
new hypothesis, high ecological validity, helps in seeing how members construct society 
around themselves (post constructionist point of view) 
 
Disadvantages: 
- Time consuming, can study only a small group, researcher personal life can be impacted, 
researcher may have to engage in activity they dislike (or even illegal ones), safety issue, 
higher or powerful class may not be studied, difficult to become part of a group sometimes, 
legal moral issues regarding observing covertly , studies can’t be replicated, researcher may 
stop noticing nuances after sometime, validity may be impacted by presence of researcher 
(can be corrected by validation by members, triangulation, grounded theory i.e. theory 
formed from analysis of data). 
 
Critical ethnography: 
 
- It is used both to develop and test theories simultaneously i.e. oppressed studied and 
interviewed about impact of oppression simultaneously; forwarded by critical school 
- Phil Carspecken says that critical ethnography is concerned about social inequalities and 
directed towards positive social change, 
- It helps in revealing oppression and educate people about the oppressions 
Martyn Hammersley is hostile to this method as he says how subjects of theory can check validity of 
theory. Patti Lather also says that critical ethnography seems circular as it is building a theory which 
is also used as an evidence 
Patti Lather has suggested way out of circle by 
1) Triangulation (cross checking with different methods i.e. quantitative data of a survey can be 
checked by in-depth interviews) 
2) Construct validity  
3) Face validity (testing the findings on few members) 
 
 
4) Catalytic validity (For her, catalytic validity refers to research that not only displays 'the 
reality-altering impact of the inquiry process' but also empowers the research subjects to 
'gain self-understanding and self-direction') 
Longitudinal research 
Studying a group over an extended period collecting data on them at intervals 
- Used to measure change in attitude 
- Generally involved following a sample  
- At times a particular age group is chosen 
- Alan Bryman: Many sociological researches have longitudinal aspect 
But difficulty in finding accessible and cooperative sample and behaviour change due to people 
being conscious  
 
 
SECONDARY SOURCES: 
Data that has already been produced i.e. census, letters, diaries, surveys, newspapers, 
autobiographies, victimisation or self-report.  
- Can be contemporary or historical 
- Used when primary data is tough to produce 
- Validity and reliability vary from source to source 
- POSITIVISTs like Durkheim used secondary data uncritically 
- Phenomenonologists discard the secondary sources that give statistics as they are assumed 
to be social construct and are open to interpretation. Ex: Cicourel thought that youth from 
lower class are likely to be seen as delinquent. 
- CONFLICT THEORISTS like Ian Miles and John Irvine says that not all data is fabricated but 
figures criticising authorities may not be produced or publish  
But Alan Bryman says that not all official data is incorrect. 
Life Documents: 
Personal records of individual’s experiences and social actions like Diaries, photos, letters, 
biographies, memoirs, suicide notes, films, paintings, music, e mails etc 
- Polish peasant study 
- Ken Plummer says that life documentaries are declining as they are unrepresentative 
- They are open to interpretation and may reflect only a floating situation like 
anger/happiness 
 
VISUAL ANALYSIS: 
It involves the examination of different types of secondary sources from mass media to life 
documents and historical resources. It can be divided into moving and still images. Ex how 
photojournalism influences perception of important historical events or study of advertisements. 
 
 
But there are ethical and confidentiality issues. 
CONTENT ANALYSIS: 
Analysis content of documents.  
Ray Pawson gives four approaches 
1) Formal content analysis: emphasis on reliability and objectivity; ignores inherent meanings 
for ex: no of words devoted to a topic 
2) Thematic: how often theme is presented 
3) Textual: how a text encourages/ discourages an interpretation 
4) Audience: focussing on responses of audience 
 
Assessing secondary resources: 
1) Authenticity: genuineness of author 
2) Credibility: accuracy of author 
3) Representativeness (time and accessibility) 
4) Meaning: understanding of document 
 
COMBINING VARIOUS METHODS: 
Alan Bryman says that difference between quantitative and qualitative research is over polarized. 
Even Weber used combination of various methods. New age is of methodological pluralism. 
Martyn Hammersley has suggested three methods for combing various methods 
1) Triangulation: one method checks authenticity of other ( ex both quantitative and qualitative 
methods are used to verify each other) 
2) Facilitation:  one method helps the other method ex: Interview helps in producing questions 
for questionnaire. 
3) Complementarity: various methods are used to cover various aspects ex questionnaire to 
produce statistical data while qualitative method to understand meaning behind pattern 
Alan Bryman also gave 10 ways of multi strategy research like combining methods to fill the gaps, 
generalizing the findings etc