Notes: Emile Durkheim | Sociology Mains Optional for UPSC 2024 PDF Download

 Page 1


 
 
EMILE DURKHEIM SOCIAL FACTS 
• SOCIAL FACTS 
o Book: “Montesquieu & Rousseau”, 1892  
o Physical world: facts observed directly Social world: facts observed indirectly 
o Aim: To make generalized laws using scientific methods. Influence of August Comte. 
o Subject matter of Sociology: To study social facts 
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL FACTS 
1) Externality  
2) Constraint  
3) Generality  
4) Independence 
TYPES 
1) Institutional: Religion, education, morality  
2) Structural Morphological: Housing pattern, Clothing, still not accepted  
3) Non – Institutional: Rise spontaneously. 4)Pathological: Suicide, rate of crime, etc. 
 
STUDY OF SOCIAL FACTS 
1) Rules of observation By identifying their manifestations, symbols, Eg: Reformative kws represents 
modern society.  
2) Rules of classification 
3) Rules of Distinction: Difference between normal & pathological. It shows Durkheim’s functional bias.  
4) Rules of Explanation: - Define precisely - Complete objectivity - Methods of natural sciences - 
Empirical investigation - Make general laws 
 
EMILE DURKHEIM DIVIION OF LABOUR 
(DIVISION OF LABOR) 
• “In modern society where heterogeneity, complexity & differentiation is found, what holds the 
society together?” 
Primitive society Held together by – Mechanical Solidarity based on likeness, norms & values.  
D.O.L.: Splitting of activities. Implies specialization 
 
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EMILE DURKHEIM SOCIAL FACTS 
• SOCIAL FACTS 
o Book: “Montesquieu & Rousseau”, 1892  
o Physical world: facts observed directly Social world: facts observed indirectly 
o Aim: To make generalized laws using scientific methods. Influence of August Comte. 
o Subject matter of Sociology: To study social facts 
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL FACTS 
1) Externality  
2) Constraint  
3) Generality  
4) Independence 
TYPES 
1) Institutional: Religion, education, morality  
2) Structural Morphological: Housing pattern, Clothing, still not accepted  
3) Non – Institutional: Rise spontaneously. 4)Pathological: Suicide, rate of crime, etc. 
 
STUDY OF SOCIAL FACTS 
1) Rules of observation By identifying their manifestations, symbols, Eg: Reformative kws represents 
modern society.  
2) Rules of classification 
3) Rules of Distinction: Difference between normal & pathological. It shows Durkheim’s functional bias.  
4) Rules of Explanation: - Define precisely - Complete objectivity - Methods of natural sciences - 
Empirical investigation - Make general laws 
 
EMILE DURKHEIM DIVIION OF LABOUR 
(DIVISION OF LABOR) 
• “In modern society where heterogeneity, complexity & differentiation is found, what holds the 
society together?” 
Primitive society Held together by – Mechanical Solidarity based on likeness, norms & values.  
D.O.L.: Splitting of activities. Implies specialization 
 
 
 
Primitive society Mechanical Solidarity (likeness) 
Modern Organic Solidarity (based on differences) 
Low collective conscience Increased individuality D.O.L. maintains Functional interdependence 
Binding society together 
 
Primitive Society Individual conscience = societal conscience 
• Modern Individual conscience IS NOT = societal “Individual while becoming autonomous, comes 
to” depend more heavily on society” 
 
D.O.L. AS A SOCIAL FACT 
• Exists everywhere eg family religion  
It is sui–generis Evolves with society  
Integrates People 
 
ABNORMAL FORMS OF D.O.L. 
Study of abnormal forms is important, as it helps in understanding the importance of normal form 
1) Anomic When people don’t follow norms – Corruption 
2) Inadequate organization Overburdening someone Leads to conflicts 
3) Forced D.O.L. Caste system 
Way Ahead This will resolve by forming “ professional associations” , which will Implement ethical & 
moral codes.  Book – “Professional Ethics & Civic Morals” 
 
EMILE DURKHEIM 
(SUICIDE) 
• SUICIDE 
“Any death caused directly/indirectly, by a positive/negative action of the victim himself which 
he knows will produce this result”.  
Used scientific methods Multivariate analysis Concomitant variables Surveys, etc 
  
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EMILE DURKHEIM SOCIAL FACTS 
• SOCIAL FACTS 
o Book: “Montesquieu & Rousseau”, 1892  
o Physical world: facts observed directly Social world: facts observed indirectly 
o Aim: To make generalized laws using scientific methods. Influence of August Comte. 
o Subject matter of Sociology: To study social facts 
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL FACTS 
1) Externality  
2) Constraint  
3) Generality  
4) Independence 
TYPES 
1) Institutional: Religion, education, morality  
2) Structural Morphological: Housing pattern, Clothing, still not accepted  
3) Non – Institutional: Rise spontaneously. 4)Pathological: Suicide, rate of crime, etc. 
 
STUDY OF SOCIAL FACTS 
1) Rules of observation By identifying their manifestations, symbols, Eg: Reformative kws represents 
modern society.  
2) Rules of classification 
3) Rules of Distinction: Difference between normal & pathological. It shows Durkheim’s functional bias.  
4) Rules of Explanation: - Define precisely - Complete objectivity - Methods of natural sciences - 
Empirical investigation - Make general laws 
 
EMILE DURKHEIM DIVIION OF LABOUR 
(DIVISION OF LABOR) 
• “In modern society where heterogeneity, complexity & differentiation is found, what holds the 
society together?” 
Primitive society Held together by – Mechanical Solidarity based on likeness, norms & values.  
D.O.L.: Splitting of activities. Implies specialization 
 
 
 
Primitive society Mechanical Solidarity (likeness) 
Modern Organic Solidarity (based on differences) 
Low collective conscience Increased individuality D.O.L. maintains Functional interdependence 
Binding society together 
 
Primitive Society Individual conscience = societal conscience 
• Modern Individual conscience IS NOT = societal “Individual while becoming autonomous, comes 
to” depend more heavily on society” 
 
D.O.L. AS A SOCIAL FACT 
• Exists everywhere eg family religion  
It is sui–generis Evolves with society  
Integrates People 
 
ABNORMAL FORMS OF D.O.L. 
Study of abnormal forms is important, as it helps in understanding the importance of normal form 
1) Anomic When people don’t follow norms – Corruption 
2) Inadequate organization Overburdening someone Leads to conflicts 
3) Forced D.O.L. Caste system 
Way Ahead This will resolve by forming “ professional associations” , which will Implement ethical & 
moral codes.  Book – “Professional Ethics & Civic Morals” 
 
EMILE DURKHEIM 
(SUICIDE) 
• SUICIDE 
“Any death caused directly/indirectly, by a positive/negative action of the victim himself which 
he knows will produce this result”.  
Used scientific methods Multivariate analysis Concomitant variables Surveys, etc 
  
 
 
 
CERTAIN CONCLUSIONS 
• Not psychological Wide range of variables Rate of suicide in different societies fairly constant 
 
SUICIDOGENIC FORCES 
• Forces of Integration High : Altruistic Low : Egoistic 
• Forces of Regulation High : Fatalistic Low : Anomic 
• Suicidogenic forces exist in every society in forms of social currents 
SUICIDE AS A SOCIAL FACT Rate of suicide of various societies is fairly constant 
Not psychological certain normal people committed it Certain ill people did not 
Forces of integration & regulation as suicidogenic forces originate from society 
Certain rate of suicide as normal 
 
FARMER SUICIDE 
• Greater no. of suicide in last 2 decades 
Reasons - Agricultural income stagnation - Consumerism - Failed loan repayment  
From farmer’s view : - Egoistic : that he’s left alone Govt’s – Anomic : failing to follow norms like 
risk, consumerisms, geography Societal – Altruistic : Upholding value that loan has to paid 
Lender’s – Fatalistic : Former sees himself as overtly regulated by straight laws 
 
EMILE DURKHEIM 
(RELIGION) 
• RELIGION 
Book : “Elementary forms of religious life”, 1912 
Religion “A religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, that is to 
say, things set apart and forbidden -- beliefs and practices which unite into one single moral 
community called a Church, all those who adhere to them." 
 
Society is conceptualised as divided into 2 halves, one sacred which deals with the supernatural 
& rest of the society, he calls as profane. 
He rejected the earlier psychological or intellectual explanations to the origin of religion & 
instead proves that the real cause of religion is social. 
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EMILE DURKHEIM SOCIAL FACTS 
• SOCIAL FACTS 
o Book: “Montesquieu & Rousseau”, 1892  
o Physical world: facts observed directly Social world: facts observed indirectly 
o Aim: To make generalized laws using scientific methods. Influence of August Comte. 
o Subject matter of Sociology: To study social facts 
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL FACTS 
1) Externality  
2) Constraint  
3) Generality  
4) Independence 
TYPES 
1) Institutional: Religion, education, morality  
2) Structural Morphological: Housing pattern, Clothing, still not accepted  
3) Non – Institutional: Rise spontaneously. 4)Pathological: Suicide, rate of crime, etc. 
 
STUDY OF SOCIAL FACTS 
1) Rules of observation By identifying their manifestations, symbols, Eg: Reformative kws represents 
modern society.  
2) Rules of classification 
3) Rules of Distinction: Difference between normal & pathological. It shows Durkheim’s functional bias.  
4) Rules of Explanation: - Define precisely - Complete objectivity - Methods of natural sciences - 
Empirical investigation - Make general laws 
 
EMILE DURKHEIM DIVIION OF LABOUR 
(DIVISION OF LABOR) 
• “In modern society where heterogeneity, complexity & differentiation is found, what holds the 
society together?” 
Primitive society Held together by – Mechanical Solidarity based on likeness, norms & values.  
D.O.L.: Splitting of activities. Implies specialization 
 
 
 
Primitive society Mechanical Solidarity (likeness) 
Modern Organic Solidarity (based on differences) 
Low collective conscience Increased individuality D.O.L. maintains Functional interdependence 
Binding society together 
 
Primitive Society Individual conscience = societal conscience 
• Modern Individual conscience IS NOT = societal “Individual while becoming autonomous, comes 
to” depend more heavily on society” 
 
D.O.L. AS A SOCIAL FACT 
• Exists everywhere eg family religion  
It is sui–generis Evolves with society  
Integrates People 
 
ABNORMAL FORMS OF D.O.L. 
Study of abnormal forms is important, as it helps in understanding the importance of normal form 
1) Anomic When people don’t follow norms – Corruption 
2) Inadequate organization Overburdening someone Leads to conflicts 
3) Forced D.O.L. Caste system 
Way Ahead This will resolve by forming “ professional associations” , which will Implement ethical & 
moral codes.  Book – “Professional Ethics & Civic Morals” 
 
EMILE DURKHEIM 
(SUICIDE) 
• SUICIDE 
“Any death caused directly/indirectly, by a positive/negative action of the victim himself which 
he knows will produce this result”.  
Used scientific methods Multivariate analysis Concomitant variables Surveys, etc 
  
 
 
 
CERTAIN CONCLUSIONS 
• Not psychological Wide range of variables Rate of suicide in different societies fairly constant 
 
SUICIDOGENIC FORCES 
• Forces of Integration High : Altruistic Low : Egoistic 
• Forces of Regulation High : Fatalistic Low : Anomic 
• Suicidogenic forces exist in every society in forms of social currents 
SUICIDE AS A SOCIAL FACT Rate of suicide of various societies is fairly constant 
Not psychological certain normal people committed it Certain ill people did not 
Forces of integration & regulation as suicidogenic forces originate from society 
Certain rate of suicide as normal 
 
FARMER SUICIDE 
• Greater no. of suicide in last 2 decades 
Reasons - Agricultural income stagnation - Consumerism - Failed loan repayment  
From farmer’s view : - Egoistic : that he’s left alone Govt’s – Anomic : failing to follow norms like 
risk, consumerisms, geography Societal – Altruistic : Upholding value that loan has to paid 
Lender’s – Fatalistic : Former sees himself as overtly regulated by straight laws 
 
EMILE DURKHEIM 
(RELIGION) 
• RELIGION 
Book : “Elementary forms of religious life”, 1912 
Religion “A religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, that is to 
say, things set apart and forbidden -- beliefs and practices which unite into one single moral 
community called a Church, all those who adhere to them." 
 
Society is conceptualised as divided into 2 halves, one sacred which deals with the supernatural 
& rest of the society, he calls as profane. 
He rejected the earlier psychological or intellectual explanations to the origin of religion & 
instead proves that the real cause of religion is social. 
 
 
Both the words are mutually exclusive & a person can be a member of only one world at a time 
While an individual is in touch with sacred he also becomes sacred 
 
CAUSE OF RELIGION 
• A fact that modern religion have evolved from the simpler forms of religion 
• To establish the cause of simpler form 
• He read various ethnographies Selected the primitive religion practiced among “Arunta” tribe of 
Central Australia 
Primitive men were wanderers They moved from place to place in search of food or other things 
Occasionally they came together for some purpose The evidence of this Durkheim finds in ancient 
fairs, since time immemorial They (people) talk to each other, they dance, all are enjoying they feel 
happy 
They feel something different which they do not feel when they are alone Durkheim calls this as a 
state of exaltation or collective effervescences The feeling disappears once they are separated 
Primitive man explained this feeling with the help of presence of some supernatural face The study 
of various ethnographies revealed that primitive tribes do have a conception of this supernatural 
force which is termed by various/different tribes differently It is called Mana, Bonga etc in different 
types. 
Primitive man becomes anxious and wants to re-experience the feeling They need to explain this 
force Eventually they create a totem as a representation When they come closer to the totem, they 
imagine that feeling This is the origin of totem of totem & the cause of religion 
But we can say now that totem is the material representation of the non- material force 
Non- material is none other than society  
Sacred god & society are one & the same thing this feeling of the force was due to collectively or the 
elementary beginning of society So totem is nothing but the symbol of the society 
Finally Durkheim states, “if it (totem) is at once the symbol of god & society, is it not because god & 
society are one”. 
Ultimately he proposes that religion is the expression of self- creation & autonomous development 
of society 
As the society becomes complex religion also becomes complex 
Thus, it is not the totem that we worship, it is the collectively we worship. 
 
Page 5


 
 
EMILE DURKHEIM SOCIAL FACTS 
• SOCIAL FACTS 
o Book: “Montesquieu & Rousseau”, 1892  
o Physical world: facts observed directly Social world: facts observed indirectly 
o Aim: To make generalized laws using scientific methods. Influence of August Comte. 
o Subject matter of Sociology: To study social facts 
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL FACTS 
1) Externality  
2) Constraint  
3) Generality  
4) Independence 
TYPES 
1) Institutional: Religion, education, morality  
2) Structural Morphological: Housing pattern, Clothing, still not accepted  
3) Non – Institutional: Rise spontaneously. 4)Pathological: Suicide, rate of crime, etc. 
 
STUDY OF SOCIAL FACTS 
1) Rules of observation By identifying their manifestations, symbols, Eg: Reformative kws represents 
modern society.  
2) Rules of classification 
3) Rules of Distinction: Difference between normal & pathological. It shows Durkheim’s functional bias.  
4) Rules of Explanation: - Define precisely - Complete objectivity - Methods of natural sciences - 
Empirical investigation - Make general laws 
 
EMILE DURKHEIM DIVIION OF LABOUR 
(DIVISION OF LABOR) 
• “In modern society where heterogeneity, complexity & differentiation is found, what holds the 
society together?” 
Primitive society Held together by – Mechanical Solidarity based on likeness, norms & values.  
D.O.L.: Splitting of activities. Implies specialization 
 
 
 
Primitive society Mechanical Solidarity (likeness) 
Modern Organic Solidarity (based on differences) 
Low collective conscience Increased individuality D.O.L. maintains Functional interdependence 
Binding society together 
 
Primitive Society Individual conscience = societal conscience 
• Modern Individual conscience IS NOT = societal “Individual while becoming autonomous, comes 
to” depend more heavily on society” 
 
D.O.L. AS A SOCIAL FACT 
• Exists everywhere eg family religion  
It is sui–generis Evolves with society  
Integrates People 
 
ABNORMAL FORMS OF D.O.L. 
Study of abnormal forms is important, as it helps in understanding the importance of normal form 
1) Anomic When people don’t follow norms – Corruption 
2) Inadequate organization Overburdening someone Leads to conflicts 
3) Forced D.O.L. Caste system 
Way Ahead This will resolve by forming “ professional associations” , which will Implement ethical & 
moral codes.  Book – “Professional Ethics & Civic Morals” 
 
EMILE DURKHEIM 
(SUICIDE) 
• SUICIDE 
“Any death caused directly/indirectly, by a positive/negative action of the victim himself which 
he knows will produce this result”.  
Used scientific methods Multivariate analysis Concomitant variables Surveys, etc 
  
 
 
 
CERTAIN CONCLUSIONS 
• Not psychological Wide range of variables Rate of suicide in different societies fairly constant 
 
SUICIDOGENIC FORCES 
• Forces of Integration High : Altruistic Low : Egoistic 
• Forces of Regulation High : Fatalistic Low : Anomic 
• Suicidogenic forces exist in every society in forms of social currents 
SUICIDE AS A SOCIAL FACT Rate of suicide of various societies is fairly constant 
Not psychological certain normal people committed it Certain ill people did not 
Forces of integration & regulation as suicidogenic forces originate from society 
Certain rate of suicide as normal 
 
FARMER SUICIDE 
• Greater no. of suicide in last 2 decades 
Reasons - Agricultural income stagnation - Consumerism - Failed loan repayment  
From farmer’s view : - Egoistic : that he’s left alone Govt’s – Anomic : failing to follow norms like 
risk, consumerisms, geography Societal – Altruistic : Upholding value that loan has to paid 
Lender’s – Fatalistic : Former sees himself as overtly regulated by straight laws 
 
EMILE DURKHEIM 
(RELIGION) 
• RELIGION 
Book : “Elementary forms of religious life”, 1912 
Religion “A religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, that is to 
say, things set apart and forbidden -- beliefs and practices which unite into one single moral 
community called a Church, all those who adhere to them." 
 
Society is conceptualised as divided into 2 halves, one sacred which deals with the supernatural 
& rest of the society, he calls as profane. 
He rejected the earlier psychological or intellectual explanations to the origin of religion & 
instead proves that the real cause of religion is social. 
 
 
Both the words are mutually exclusive & a person can be a member of only one world at a time 
While an individual is in touch with sacred he also becomes sacred 
 
CAUSE OF RELIGION 
• A fact that modern religion have evolved from the simpler forms of religion 
• To establish the cause of simpler form 
• He read various ethnographies Selected the primitive religion practiced among “Arunta” tribe of 
Central Australia 
Primitive men were wanderers They moved from place to place in search of food or other things 
Occasionally they came together for some purpose The evidence of this Durkheim finds in ancient 
fairs, since time immemorial They (people) talk to each other, they dance, all are enjoying they feel 
happy 
They feel something different which they do not feel when they are alone Durkheim calls this as a 
state of exaltation or collective effervescences The feeling disappears once they are separated 
Primitive man explained this feeling with the help of presence of some supernatural face The study 
of various ethnographies revealed that primitive tribes do have a conception of this supernatural 
force which is termed by various/different tribes differently It is called Mana, Bonga etc in different 
types. 
Primitive man becomes anxious and wants to re-experience the feeling They need to explain this 
force Eventually they create a totem as a representation When they come closer to the totem, they 
imagine that feeling This is the origin of totem of totem & the cause of religion 
But we can say now that totem is the material representation of the non- material force 
Non- material is none other than society  
Sacred god & society are one & the same thing this feeling of the force was due to collectively or the 
elementary beginning of society So totem is nothing but the symbol of the society 
Finally Durkheim states, “if it (totem) is at once the symbol of god & society, is it not because god & 
society are one”. 
Ultimately he proposes that religion is the expression of self- creation & autonomous development 
of society 
As the society becomes complex religion also becomes complex 
Thus, it is not the totem that we worship, it is the collectively we worship. 
 
 
 
In modern, complex societies there is a lot of individualism Religion provides the function of bringing 
people together For eg. People come together at religious places, celebration of religion festivals & 
thus the society is reinforced 
Durkheim further explains increasing popularity of science considerably Science as a unified system 
of beliefs & practices All those who follow science tend to associate with each other & become a 
common source of identity The science is nothing but a modern religion.