UPSC Exam  >  UPSC Notes  >  Must Read Old & New NCERTs for UPSC CSE (Hindi)  >  एनसीईआरटी पाठ्यपुस्तक: महासागरों और महाद्वीपों का वितरण

एनसीईआरटी पाठ्यपुस्तक: महासागरों और महाद्वीपों का वितरण | Must Read Old & New NCERTs for UPSC CSE (Hindi) PDF Download

Download, print and study this document offline
Please wait while the PDF view is loading
 Page 1


egklkxjksa vkSj egk}hiksa dk forj.k
vè;k;
Nys vè;k; esa vkius HkwxHkZ osQ fo"k; esa i<+kA
vki lalkj osQ ekufp=k ls Hkh ifjfpr gSaA vki
tkurs gSa fd i`Foh osQ 29 izfr'kr Hkkx ij egk}hi vkSj
ckdh ij egklkxj iSQys gq, gSaA egk}hiksa vkSj egklkxjksa
dh vofLFkfr] tSlkfd vkt ekufp=k ij fn[kkbZ nsrh gS]
ges'kk ls ,slh ugha jgh gSA blosQ vfrfjDr] ;g Hkh
,d rF; gS fd vkus okys le; esa Hkh egk}hi o
egklkxjksa dh fLFkfr vkt tSlh ugha jgsxhA vxj ,slk
gS rks iz'u ;g gS fd iqjkdky esa budh vofLFkfr oSQlh
Fkh\ budh vofLFkfr esa ifjorZu D;ksa vkSj oSQls gksrk
gS\ ;fn ;g lp gS fd egk}hiksa vkSj egklkxjksa dh
vofLFkfr esa ifjorZu gqvk gS vkSj vHkh Hkh gks jgk gS]
rks vki ;g tkudj vk'p;Zpfdr gksaxs fd oSKkfud
;g lc oSQls tkurs gSa\ mUgksaus bu egk}hiksa ,oa
egklkxjksa dh igys dh fLFkfr dk fu/kZj.k oSQls fd;k
gksxk\ bUgha iz'uksa osQ mÙkj vkSj buls lacaf/r iz'u gh
bl vè;k; dk fo"k; gSaA
egk}hih; izokg (Continental drift)
vVykafVd egklkxjh; rVjs[kk dh vko`Qfr dks è;ku ls
ns[ksaA bl egklkxj osQ nksuksa rjiQ dh rVjs[kk esa
vk'p;Ztud lefefr (Symmetry) gSA blh lekurk
osQ dkj.k cgqr ls oSKkfudksa us nf{k.kh o mÙkjh vesfjdk
rFkk ;wjksi o vizQhdk osQ ,d lkFk tqM+s gksus dh
laHkkouk dks O;Dr fd;kA foKku osQ bfrgkl osQ Kkr
vfHkys[kksa ls irk pyrk gS fd lu~ 1596 esa ,d Mp
ekufp=kosÙkk vczkge vkWjVsfy;l (Abraham
Ortelius) us loZizFke bl laHkkouk dks O;Dr fd;k
FkkA ,UVksfu;ks iSysXjhuh (Antonio Pellegrini) us
,d ekufp=k cuk;k] ftlesa rhuksa egk}hiksa dks bdêòk
fn[kk;k x;k FkkA teZu ekSlefon vYizsQM osxuj (Alfred
wegner) us ¶egk}hih; foLFkkiu fl¼kar¸ lu~ 1912
esa izLrkfor fd;kA ;g fl¼kar egk}hi ,oa egklkxjksa
osQ forj.k ls gh lacaf/r FkkA
bl fl¼kar dh vk/kjHkwr ladYiuk ;g Fkh fd
lHkh egk}hi ,d vosQys Hkw[kaM esa tqM+s gq, FksA osxuj
osQ vuqlkj vkt osQ lHkh egk}hi bl Hkw[kaM osQ Hkkx
Fks rFkk ;g ,d cM+s egklkxj ls f?kjk gqvk FkkA mUgksaus
bl cM+s egk}hi dks iSaft;k (Pangaea) dk uke
fn;kA iSaft;k dk vFkZ gS& laiw.kZ i`FohA fo'kky egklkxj
dks iSaFkkyklk (Panthalassa) dgk] ftldk vFkZ gS&
ty gh tyA osxuj osQ roZQ osQ vuqlkj yxHkx 20
djksM+ o"kZ igys bl cM+s egk}hi iSaft;k dk foHkktu
vkjaHk gqvkA iSaft;k igys nks cM+s egk}hih; fiaMksa ykjsf'k;k
(Laurasia) vkSj xksaMokukySaM (Gondwanaland)
ozQe'k% mÙkjh o nf{k.kh Hkw[kaMksa osQ :i esa foHkDr gqvkA
blosQ ckn ykjsf'k;k o xksMokukySaM /hjs&/hjs vusd
NksVs fgLlksa esa c¡V x,] tks vkt osQ egk}hi osQ :i gSaA
egk}hih; foLFkkiu osQ i{k esa vusd izek.k Hkh izLrqr
fd, x, gSa] buesa ls oqQN bl izdkj gSaA
egk}hih; foLFkkiu osQ i{k esa izek.k (Evidences
in support of continental drift)
egk}hiksa esa lkE;
nf{k.k vesfjdk o vizQhdk osQ vkeus&lkeus dh rVjs[kk,¡
vn~Hkqr o =kqfVjfgr lkE; fn[kkrh gSaA ;g Hkh è;ku nsus
;ksX; gS fd 1964 bZ0 esa cqyMZ (Bullard) us ,d
fi
Page 2


egklkxjksa vkSj egk}hiksa dk forj.k
vè;k;
Nys vè;k; esa vkius HkwxHkZ osQ fo"k; esa i<+kA
vki lalkj osQ ekufp=k ls Hkh ifjfpr gSaA vki
tkurs gSa fd i`Foh osQ 29 izfr'kr Hkkx ij egk}hi vkSj
ckdh ij egklkxj iSQys gq, gSaA egk}hiksa vkSj egklkxjksa
dh vofLFkfr] tSlkfd vkt ekufp=k ij fn[kkbZ nsrh gS]
ges'kk ls ,slh ugha jgh gSA blosQ vfrfjDr] ;g Hkh
,d rF; gS fd vkus okys le; esa Hkh egk}hi o
egklkxjksa dh fLFkfr vkt tSlh ugha jgsxhA vxj ,slk
gS rks iz'u ;g gS fd iqjkdky esa budh vofLFkfr oSQlh
Fkh\ budh vofLFkfr esa ifjorZu D;ksa vkSj oSQls gksrk
gS\ ;fn ;g lp gS fd egk}hiksa vkSj egklkxjksa dh
vofLFkfr esa ifjorZu gqvk gS vkSj vHkh Hkh gks jgk gS]
rks vki ;g tkudj vk'p;Zpfdr gksaxs fd oSKkfud
;g lc oSQls tkurs gSa\ mUgksaus bu egk}hiksa ,oa
egklkxjksa dh igys dh fLFkfr dk fu/kZj.k oSQls fd;k
gksxk\ bUgha iz'uksa osQ mÙkj vkSj buls lacaf/r iz'u gh
bl vè;k; dk fo"k; gSaA
egk}hih; izokg (Continental drift)
vVykafVd egklkxjh; rVjs[kk dh vko`Qfr dks è;ku ls
ns[ksaA bl egklkxj osQ nksuksa rjiQ dh rVjs[kk esa
vk'p;Ztud lefefr (Symmetry) gSA blh lekurk
osQ dkj.k cgqr ls oSKkfudksa us nf{k.kh o mÙkjh vesfjdk
rFkk ;wjksi o vizQhdk osQ ,d lkFk tqM+s gksus dh
laHkkouk dks O;Dr fd;kA foKku osQ bfrgkl osQ Kkr
vfHkys[kksa ls irk pyrk gS fd lu~ 1596 esa ,d Mp
ekufp=kosÙkk vczkge vkWjVsfy;l (Abraham
Ortelius) us loZizFke bl laHkkouk dks O;Dr fd;k
FkkA ,UVksfu;ks iSysXjhuh (Antonio Pellegrini) us
,d ekufp=k cuk;k] ftlesa rhuksa egk}hiksa dks bdêòk
fn[kk;k x;k FkkA teZu ekSlefon vYizsQM osxuj (Alfred
wegner) us ¶egk}hih; foLFkkiu fl¼kar¸ lu~ 1912
esa izLrkfor fd;kA ;g fl¼kar egk}hi ,oa egklkxjksa
osQ forj.k ls gh lacaf/r FkkA
bl fl¼kar dh vk/kjHkwr ladYiuk ;g Fkh fd
lHkh egk}hi ,d vosQys Hkw[kaM esa tqM+s gq, FksA osxuj
osQ vuqlkj vkt osQ lHkh egk}hi bl Hkw[kaM osQ Hkkx
Fks rFkk ;g ,d cM+s egklkxj ls f?kjk gqvk FkkA mUgksaus
bl cM+s egk}hi dks iSaft;k (Pangaea) dk uke
fn;kA iSaft;k dk vFkZ gS& laiw.kZ i`FohA fo'kky egklkxj
dks iSaFkkyklk (Panthalassa) dgk] ftldk vFkZ gS&
ty gh tyA osxuj osQ roZQ osQ vuqlkj yxHkx 20
djksM+ o"kZ igys bl cM+s egk}hi iSaft;k dk foHkktu
vkjaHk gqvkA iSaft;k igys nks cM+s egk}hih; fiaMksa ykjsf'k;k
(Laurasia) vkSj xksaMokukySaM (Gondwanaland)
ozQe'k% mÙkjh o nf{k.kh Hkw[kaMksa osQ :i esa foHkDr gqvkA
blosQ ckn ykjsf'k;k o xksMokukySaM /hjs&/hjs vusd
NksVs fgLlksa esa c¡V x,] tks vkt osQ egk}hi osQ :i gSaA
egk}hih; foLFkkiu osQ i{k esa vusd izek.k Hkh izLrqr
fd, x, gSa] buesa ls oqQN bl izdkj gSaA
egk}hih; foLFkkiu osQ i{k esa izek.k (Evidences
in support of continental drift)
egk}hiksa esa lkE;
nf{k.k vesfjdk o vizQhdk osQ vkeus&lkeus dh rVjs[kk,¡
vn~Hkqr o =kqfVjfgr lkE; fn[kkrh gSaA ;g Hkh è;ku nsus
;ksX; gS fd 1964 bZ0 esa cqyMZ (Bullard) us ,d
fi
HkkSfrd Hkwxksy osQ ewy fl¼kar
32
oaQI;wVj izksxzke dh lgk;rk ls vVykafVd rVksa dks
tksM+rs gq, ,d ekufp=k rS;kj fd;k FkkA rVksa dk ;g
lkE; fcYoqQy lgh fl¼ gqvkA lkE; fcBkus dh ;g
dksf'k'k vkt dh rVjs[kk dh vis{kk 1]000 iSQne dh
xgjkbZ dh rVjs[kk osQ lkFk dh xbZ FkhA
egklkxjksa osQ ikj pêðkuksa dh vk;q esa lekurk
vk/qfud le; esa fodflr dh xbZ jsfM;ksfefVªd dky
fu/kZj.k (Radiometric dating) fof/ ls egklkxjksa
osQ ikj egk}hiksa dh pêðkuksa osQ fuekZ.k osQ le; dks
ljyrk ls tkuk tk ldrk gSA 200 djksM+ o"kZ izkphu
'kSy lewgksa dh ,d iêðh czkthy rV vkSj if'peh
vizQhdk osQ rV ij feyrh gSa] tks vkil esa esy [kkrh
gSA nf{k.kh vesfjdk o vizQhdk dh rVjs[kk osQ lkFk
ik, tkus okys vkjafHkd leqnzh fu{ksi tqjsfld dky
(Jurassic age) osQ gSaA blls ;g irk pyrk gS fd
bl le; ls igys egklkxj dh mifLFkfr ogk¡ ugha FkhA
fVykbV (Tillite)
fVykbV os volknh pêðkusa gSa] tks fgekuh fu{ksi.k ls
fufeZr gksrh gSaA Hkkjr esa ik, tkus okys xksaMokuk Js.kh
osQ ryNVksa osQ izfr:i nf{k.k xksyk¼Z osQ N% fofHkUu
LFky[kaMksa esa feyrs gSaA xksaMokuk Js.kh osQ vk/kj ry esa
?kus fVykbV gSa] tks foLr`r o yacs le; rd fgevkoj.k
;k fgekPNknu dh vksj bafxr djrs gSaA blh ozQe osQ
izfr:i Hkkjr osQ vfrfjDr vizQhdk] iQkWdySaM }hi]
eSMkxkLdj] vaVkoZQfVd vkSj vkLVªsfy;k esa feyrs gSaA
xksaMokuk Js.kh osQ ryNVksa dh ;g lekurk Li"V djrh
gS fd bu LFky[kaMksa osQ bfrgkl esa Hkh lekurk jgh gSA
fgekuh fufeZr fVykbV pêðkusa iqjkru tyok;q vkSj
egk}hiksa osQ foLFkkiu osQ Li"V izek.k izLrqr djrs gSaA
Iyslj fu{ksi (Placer deposits)
?kkuk rV ij lksus osQ cM+s fu{ksiksa dh mifLFkfr o mn~xe
pêðkuksa dh vuqifLFkfr ,d vk'p;Ztud rF; gSA
lksuk;qDr f'kjk,¡ (Gold bearing veins) czkthy esa
ikbZ tkrh gSaA vr% ;g Li"V gS fd ?kkuk esa feyus okys
lksus osQ fu{ksi czkthy iBkj ls ml le; fudys gksaxs]
tc ;s nksuksa egk}hi ,d nwljs ls tqM+s FksA
thok'eksa dk forj.k (Distribution of fossils)
;fn leqnzh vojks/d osQ nksuksa foijhr fdukjksa ij ty
o LFky esa ik, tkus okys ikS/ksa o tarqvksa dh leku
iztkfr;k¡ ikbZ tk,] rks muosQ forj.k dh O;k[;k esa
leL;k,¡ mRiUu gksrh gSaA bl izs{k.k ls fd ^ySewj*
Hkkjr] eSMkxkLdj o vizQhdk esa feyrs gSa] oqQN oSKkfudksa
us bu rhuksa LFky[kaMksa dks tksM+dj ,d lrr~ LFky[kaM
^ysewfj;k* (Lemuria) dh mifLFkfr dks LohdkjkA
eslkslkjl (Mesosaurus) uke osQ NksVs jsaxus okys
tho osQoy mFkys [kkjs ikuh esa gh jg ldrs Fks& budh
vfLFk;k¡ osQoy nf{k.k vizQhdk osQ nf{k.kh osQi izkar
vkSj czkthy esa bjkoj 'kSy lewg esa gh feyrs gSaA ;s
nksuksa LFkku vkt ,d nwljs ls 4]800 fd0eh0 dh nwjh
ij gSa vkSj buosQ chp esa ,d egklkxj fo|eku gSA
izokg laca/h cy (Force for drifting)
osxuj osQ vuqlkj egk}hih; foLFkkiu osQ nks dkj.k Fks%
(1) iksyj ;k /qzoh; Ýyhbax cy (Polar fleeing
force) vkSj (2) Tokjh; cy (Tidal force)A
/qzoh; Ýyhbax cy i`Foh osQ ?kw.kZu ls lacaf/r gSA vki
tkurs gSa fd i`Foh dh vko`Qfr ,d laiw.kZ xksys tSlh
ugha gS_ oju~ ;g Hkweè;js[kk ij mHkjh gqbZ gSA ;g mHkkj
i`Foh osQ ?kw.kZu osQ dkj.k gSA nwljk cy] tks osxuj
egksn; us lq>k;k& og Tokjh; cy gS] tks lw;Z o panzek
osQ vkd"kZ.k ls laca¼ gS] ftlls egklkxjksa esa Tokj iSnk
gksrs gSaA osxuj dk ekuuk Fkk fd djksM+ksa o"kks± osQ nkSjku
;s cy izHkko'kkyh gksdj foLFkkiu osQ fy, l{ke gks
x,A ;|fi cgqr ls oSKkfud bu nksuksa gh cyksa dks
egk}hih; foLFkkiu osQ fy, loZFkk vi;kZIr le>rs gSaA
laogu&/kjk fl¼kar (Convectional current
theory)
1930 osQ n'kd eas vkFkZj gksEl (Arthur Holmes)
us eSaVy (Mantle) Hkkx esa laogu&/kjkvksa osQ izHkko
dh laHkkouk O;Dr dhA ;s /kjk,¡ jsfM;ks,fDVo rRoksa ls
mRiUu rki fHkUurk ls eSaVy Hkkx esa mRiUu gksrh gSaA
gksEl us roZQ fn;k fd iwjs eSaVy Hkkx esa bl izdkj dh
/kjkvksa dk ra=k fo|eku gSA ;g mu izokg cyksa dh
O;k[;k izLrqr djus dk iz;kl Fkk] ftlosQ vk/kj ij
ledkyhu oSKkfudksa us egk}hih; foLFkkiu fl¼kar dks
udkj fn;kA
Page 3


egklkxjksa vkSj egk}hiksa dk forj.k
vè;k;
Nys vè;k; esa vkius HkwxHkZ osQ fo"k; esa i<+kA
vki lalkj osQ ekufp=k ls Hkh ifjfpr gSaA vki
tkurs gSa fd i`Foh osQ 29 izfr'kr Hkkx ij egk}hi vkSj
ckdh ij egklkxj iSQys gq, gSaA egk}hiksa vkSj egklkxjksa
dh vofLFkfr] tSlkfd vkt ekufp=k ij fn[kkbZ nsrh gS]
ges'kk ls ,slh ugha jgh gSA blosQ vfrfjDr] ;g Hkh
,d rF; gS fd vkus okys le; esa Hkh egk}hi o
egklkxjksa dh fLFkfr vkt tSlh ugha jgsxhA vxj ,slk
gS rks iz'u ;g gS fd iqjkdky esa budh vofLFkfr oSQlh
Fkh\ budh vofLFkfr esa ifjorZu D;ksa vkSj oSQls gksrk
gS\ ;fn ;g lp gS fd egk}hiksa vkSj egklkxjksa dh
vofLFkfr esa ifjorZu gqvk gS vkSj vHkh Hkh gks jgk gS]
rks vki ;g tkudj vk'p;Zpfdr gksaxs fd oSKkfud
;g lc oSQls tkurs gSa\ mUgksaus bu egk}hiksa ,oa
egklkxjksa dh igys dh fLFkfr dk fu/kZj.k oSQls fd;k
gksxk\ bUgha iz'uksa osQ mÙkj vkSj buls lacaf/r iz'u gh
bl vè;k; dk fo"k; gSaA
egk}hih; izokg (Continental drift)
vVykafVd egklkxjh; rVjs[kk dh vko`Qfr dks è;ku ls
ns[ksaA bl egklkxj osQ nksuksa rjiQ dh rVjs[kk esa
vk'p;Ztud lefefr (Symmetry) gSA blh lekurk
osQ dkj.k cgqr ls oSKkfudksa us nf{k.kh o mÙkjh vesfjdk
rFkk ;wjksi o vizQhdk osQ ,d lkFk tqM+s gksus dh
laHkkouk dks O;Dr fd;kA foKku osQ bfrgkl osQ Kkr
vfHkys[kksa ls irk pyrk gS fd lu~ 1596 esa ,d Mp
ekufp=kosÙkk vczkge vkWjVsfy;l (Abraham
Ortelius) us loZizFke bl laHkkouk dks O;Dr fd;k
FkkA ,UVksfu;ks iSysXjhuh (Antonio Pellegrini) us
,d ekufp=k cuk;k] ftlesa rhuksa egk}hiksa dks bdêòk
fn[kk;k x;k FkkA teZu ekSlefon vYizsQM osxuj (Alfred
wegner) us ¶egk}hih; foLFkkiu fl¼kar¸ lu~ 1912
esa izLrkfor fd;kA ;g fl¼kar egk}hi ,oa egklkxjksa
osQ forj.k ls gh lacaf/r FkkA
bl fl¼kar dh vk/kjHkwr ladYiuk ;g Fkh fd
lHkh egk}hi ,d vosQys Hkw[kaM esa tqM+s gq, FksA osxuj
osQ vuqlkj vkt osQ lHkh egk}hi bl Hkw[kaM osQ Hkkx
Fks rFkk ;g ,d cM+s egklkxj ls f?kjk gqvk FkkA mUgksaus
bl cM+s egk}hi dks iSaft;k (Pangaea) dk uke
fn;kA iSaft;k dk vFkZ gS& laiw.kZ i`FohA fo'kky egklkxj
dks iSaFkkyklk (Panthalassa) dgk] ftldk vFkZ gS&
ty gh tyA osxuj osQ roZQ osQ vuqlkj yxHkx 20
djksM+ o"kZ igys bl cM+s egk}hi iSaft;k dk foHkktu
vkjaHk gqvkA iSaft;k igys nks cM+s egk}hih; fiaMksa ykjsf'k;k
(Laurasia) vkSj xksaMokukySaM (Gondwanaland)
ozQe'k% mÙkjh o nf{k.kh Hkw[kaMksa osQ :i esa foHkDr gqvkA
blosQ ckn ykjsf'k;k o xksMokukySaM /hjs&/hjs vusd
NksVs fgLlksa esa c¡V x,] tks vkt osQ egk}hi osQ :i gSaA
egk}hih; foLFkkiu osQ i{k esa vusd izek.k Hkh izLrqr
fd, x, gSa] buesa ls oqQN bl izdkj gSaA
egk}hih; foLFkkiu osQ i{k esa izek.k (Evidences
in support of continental drift)
egk}hiksa esa lkE;
nf{k.k vesfjdk o vizQhdk osQ vkeus&lkeus dh rVjs[kk,¡
vn~Hkqr o =kqfVjfgr lkE; fn[kkrh gSaA ;g Hkh è;ku nsus
;ksX; gS fd 1964 bZ0 esa cqyMZ (Bullard) us ,d
fi
HkkSfrd Hkwxksy osQ ewy fl¼kar
32
oaQI;wVj izksxzke dh lgk;rk ls vVykafVd rVksa dks
tksM+rs gq, ,d ekufp=k rS;kj fd;k FkkA rVksa dk ;g
lkE; fcYoqQy lgh fl¼ gqvkA lkE; fcBkus dh ;g
dksf'k'k vkt dh rVjs[kk dh vis{kk 1]000 iSQne dh
xgjkbZ dh rVjs[kk osQ lkFk dh xbZ FkhA
egklkxjksa osQ ikj pêðkuksa dh vk;q esa lekurk
vk/qfud le; esa fodflr dh xbZ jsfM;ksfefVªd dky
fu/kZj.k (Radiometric dating) fof/ ls egklkxjksa
osQ ikj egk}hiksa dh pêðkuksa osQ fuekZ.k osQ le; dks
ljyrk ls tkuk tk ldrk gSA 200 djksM+ o"kZ izkphu
'kSy lewgksa dh ,d iêðh czkthy rV vkSj if'peh
vizQhdk osQ rV ij feyrh gSa] tks vkil esa esy [kkrh
gSA nf{k.kh vesfjdk o vizQhdk dh rVjs[kk osQ lkFk
ik, tkus okys vkjafHkd leqnzh fu{ksi tqjsfld dky
(Jurassic age) osQ gSaA blls ;g irk pyrk gS fd
bl le; ls igys egklkxj dh mifLFkfr ogk¡ ugha FkhA
fVykbV (Tillite)
fVykbV os volknh pêðkusa gSa] tks fgekuh fu{ksi.k ls
fufeZr gksrh gSaA Hkkjr esa ik, tkus okys xksaMokuk Js.kh
osQ ryNVksa osQ izfr:i nf{k.k xksyk¼Z osQ N% fofHkUu
LFky[kaMksa esa feyrs gSaA xksaMokuk Js.kh osQ vk/kj ry esa
?kus fVykbV gSa] tks foLr`r o yacs le; rd fgevkoj.k
;k fgekPNknu dh vksj bafxr djrs gSaA blh ozQe osQ
izfr:i Hkkjr osQ vfrfjDr vizQhdk] iQkWdySaM }hi]
eSMkxkLdj] vaVkoZQfVd vkSj vkLVªsfy;k esa feyrs gSaA
xksaMokuk Js.kh osQ ryNVksa dh ;g lekurk Li"V djrh
gS fd bu LFky[kaMksa osQ bfrgkl esa Hkh lekurk jgh gSA
fgekuh fufeZr fVykbV pêðkusa iqjkru tyok;q vkSj
egk}hiksa osQ foLFkkiu osQ Li"V izek.k izLrqr djrs gSaA
Iyslj fu{ksi (Placer deposits)
?kkuk rV ij lksus osQ cM+s fu{ksiksa dh mifLFkfr o mn~xe
pêðkuksa dh vuqifLFkfr ,d vk'p;Ztud rF; gSA
lksuk;qDr f'kjk,¡ (Gold bearing veins) czkthy esa
ikbZ tkrh gSaA vr% ;g Li"V gS fd ?kkuk esa feyus okys
lksus osQ fu{ksi czkthy iBkj ls ml le; fudys gksaxs]
tc ;s nksuksa egk}hi ,d nwljs ls tqM+s FksA
thok'eksa dk forj.k (Distribution of fossils)
;fn leqnzh vojks/d osQ nksuksa foijhr fdukjksa ij ty
o LFky esa ik, tkus okys ikS/ksa o tarqvksa dh leku
iztkfr;k¡ ikbZ tk,] rks muosQ forj.k dh O;k[;k esa
leL;k,¡ mRiUu gksrh gSaA bl izs{k.k ls fd ^ySewj*
Hkkjr] eSMkxkLdj o vizQhdk esa feyrs gSa] oqQN oSKkfudksa
us bu rhuksa LFky[kaMksa dks tksM+dj ,d lrr~ LFky[kaM
^ysewfj;k* (Lemuria) dh mifLFkfr dks LohdkjkA
eslkslkjl (Mesosaurus) uke osQ NksVs jsaxus okys
tho osQoy mFkys [kkjs ikuh esa gh jg ldrs Fks& budh
vfLFk;k¡ osQoy nf{k.k vizQhdk osQ nf{k.kh osQi izkar
vkSj czkthy esa bjkoj 'kSy lewg esa gh feyrs gSaA ;s
nksuksa LFkku vkt ,d nwljs ls 4]800 fd0eh0 dh nwjh
ij gSa vkSj buosQ chp esa ,d egklkxj fo|eku gSA
izokg laca/h cy (Force for drifting)
osxuj osQ vuqlkj egk}hih; foLFkkiu osQ nks dkj.k Fks%
(1) iksyj ;k /qzoh; Ýyhbax cy (Polar fleeing
force) vkSj (2) Tokjh; cy (Tidal force)A
/qzoh; Ýyhbax cy i`Foh osQ ?kw.kZu ls lacaf/r gSA vki
tkurs gSa fd i`Foh dh vko`Qfr ,d laiw.kZ xksys tSlh
ugha gS_ oju~ ;g Hkweè;js[kk ij mHkjh gqbZ gSA ;g mHkkj
i`Foh osQ ?kw.kZu osQ dkj.k gSA nwljk cy] tks osxuj
egksn; us lq>k;k& og Tokjh; cy gS] tks lw;Z o panzek
osQ vkd"kZ.k ls laca¼ gS] ftlls egklkxjksa esa Tokj iSnk
gksrs gSaA osxuj dk ekuuk Fkk fd djksM+ksa o"kks± osQ nkSjku
;s cy izHkko'kkyh gksdj foLFkkiu osQ fy, l{ke gks
x,A ;|fi cgqr ls oSKkfud bu nksuksa gh cyksa dks
egk}hih; foLFkkiu osQ fy, loZFkk vi;kZIr le>rs gSaA
laogu&/kjk fl¼kar (Convectional current
theory)
1930 osQ n'kd eas vkFkZj gksEl (Arthur Holmes)
us eSaVy (Mantle) Hkkx esa laogu&/kjkvksa osQ izHkko
dh laHkkouk O;Dr dhA ;s /kjk,¡ jsfM;ks,fDVo rRoksa ls
mRiUu rki fHkUurk ls eSaVy Hkkx esa mRiUu gksrh gSaA
gksEl us roZQ fn;k fd iwjs eSaVy Hkkx esa bl izdkj dh
/kjkvksa dk ra=k fo|eku gSA ;g mu izokg cyksa dh
O;k[;k izLrqr djus dk iz;kl Fkk] ftlosQ vk/kj ij
ledkyhu oSKkfudksa us egk}hih; foLFkkiu fl¼kar dks
udkj fn;kA
egklkxjksa vkSj egk}hiksa dk forj.k
33
egklkxjh; v/Lry dk ekufp=k.k (Mapping of
the ocean floor)
egklkxjksa dh cukoV vkSj vkdkj ij foLr`r 'kks/] ;g
Li"V djrs gSa fd egklkxjksa dk v/Lry ,d foLr`r
eSnku ugha gS] oju~ mueas Hkh mPpkop ik;k tkrk gSA
;q¼ksÙkj dky (Post-war period) egklkxjh; vèkLry
osQ fu:i.k vfHk;ku us egklkxjh; mPpkop laca/h
foLr`r tkudkjh izLrqr dh vkSj ;g fn[kk;k fd blosQ
v/Lryh esa tyeXu ioZrh; dVosaQ o xgjh [kkb;k¡ gSa]
tks izk;% egk}hiksa osQ fdukjksa ij fLFkr gSaA eè; egklkxjh;
dVosaQ Tokykeq[kh mn~xkj osQ :i esa lcls vf/d lfozQ;
ik;h xbZA egklkxjh; iiZVh dh pêðkuksa osQ dky fu/kZj.k
(Dating) us ;g rF; Li"V dj fn;k fd egklkxjksa osQ
fury dh pêðkusa egk}hih; Hkkxksa esa ikbZ tkus okyh pêðkuksa
dh vis{kk uohu gSaA egklkxjh; dVd osQ nksuksa rjiQ dh
pêðkusa] tks dVd ls cjkcj nwjh ij fLFkr gSa] mu dh
vk;q o jpuk esa Hkh vk'p;Ztud lekurk ikbZ tkrh gSA
tk ldrk gSA ;s Hkkx gSa % (1) egk}hih; lhek] (2)
xgjs leqnzh csflu vkSj (3) eè;&egklkxjh; dVdA
egk}hih; lhek (Continental margins)
;s egk}hih; fdukjksa vkSj xgjs leqnzh csflu osQ chp
dk Hkkx gSA blesa egk}hih; eXurV] egk}hih; <ky]
egk}hih; mHkkj vkSj xgjh egklkxjh; [kkb;k¡ vkfn
'kkfey gSaA egklkxjksa o egk}hiksa osQ forj.k dks le>us
osQ fy, xgjh&egklkxjh; [kkb;ksa osQ {ks=k fo'ks"k egRoiw.kZ
vkSj jkspd gSaA
foryh; eSnku (Abyssal Plains)
;s foLr`r eSnku egk}hih; rVksa o eè; egklkxjh;
dVdksa osQ chp ik, tkrs gSaA foryh; eSnku] og {ks=k
gSa] tgk¡ egk}hiksa ls cgkdj yk, x, volkn buosQ rVksa
ls nwj fu{ksfir gksrs gSaA
eè; egklkxjh; dVd (Mid-oceanic ridges)
eè; egklkxjh; dVd vkil esa tqM+s gq, ioZrksa dh
,d Ük`a[kyk cukrh gSA egklkxjh; ty esa Mwch gqbZ] ;g
i`Foh osQ /jkry ij ikbZ tkus okyh laHkor% lcls yach
ioZr  Ük`a[kyk gSA bu dVdksa osQ eè;orhZ f'k[kj ij ,d
fjÝV] ,d izHkktd iBkj vkSj bldh yackbZ osQ lkFk&lkFk
ik'oZ eaMy bldh fo'ks"krk gSA eè;orhZ Hkkx esa mifLFkr
nzks.kh okLro esa lfozQ; Tokykeq[kh {ks=k gSA fiNys
vè;k; esa eè;&egklkxjh; Tokykeq[kh osQ :i esa ,sls
Tokykeqf[k;ksa dh tkudkjh nh xbZ gSA
HkwoaQi o Tokykeqf[k;ksa dk forj.k (Distribution
of earthquakes and volcanoes)
HkwoaQih; xfrfof/ vkSj Tokykeq[kh forj.k dk fn, x,
ekfup=k 4-5 (v) vkSj (c) eas vè;;u djsaA vki
vVykafVd egklkxj osQ eè;orhZ Hkkx esa] rV js[kk osQ
yxHkx lekukarj] ,d fcanq js[kk ns[ksaxsA ;g vkxs fgan
egklkxj rd tkrh gSA Hkkjrh; miegk}hi osQ FkksM+k
nf{k.k esa ;g nks Hkkxksa esa c¡V tkrh gS] ftldh ,d 'kk[kk
iwohZ vizQhdk dh vksj pyh tkrh gS vkSj nwljh e;uekj
ls gksrh gqbZ U;w fxuh ij ,d ,slh gh js[kk ls fey tkrh
egklkxjh; v/Lry dh cukoV (Ocean floor
configuration)
bl Hkkx esa ge egklkxjh; ry dh cukoV ls
lacaf/r oqQN ,sls rF;ksa dk vè;;u djsaxs] tks egklkxj
o egk}hiksa osQ forj.k dks le>us esa ennxkj gksaxsA
egklkxjh; ry dh vko`Qfr;k¡ vè;k; 13 esa foLrkj ls
of.kZr gSaA xgjkbZ o mPpkop osQ izdkj osQ vk/kj ij]
egklkxjh; ry dks rhu izeq[k Hkkxksa esa foHkkftr fd;k
fp=k 4-1 % egklkxjh; v/Lry (Ocean floor)
Page 4


egklkxjksa vkSj egk}hiksa dk forj.k
vè;k;
Nys vè;k; esa vkius HkwxHkZ osQ fo"k; esa i<+kA
vki lalkj osQ ekufp=k ls Hkh ifjfpr gSaA vki
tkurs gSa fd i`Foh osQ 29 izfr'kr Hkkx ij egk}hi vkSj
ckdh ij egklkxj iSQys gq, gSaA egk}hiksa vkSj egklkxjksa
dh vofLFkfr] tSlkfd vkt ekufp=k ij fn[kkbZ nsrh gS]
ges'kk ls ,slh ugha jgh gSA blosQ vfrfjDr] ;g Hkh
,d rF; gS fd vkus okys le; esa Hkh egk}hi o
egklkxjksa dh fLFkfr vkt tSlh ugha jgsxhA vxj ,slk
gS rks iz'u ;g gS fd iqjkdky esa budh vofLFkfr oSQlh
Fkh\ budh vofLFkfr esa ifjorZu D;ksa vkSj oSQls gksrk
gS\ ;fn ;g lp gS fd egk}hiksa vkSj egklkxjksa dh
vofLFkfr esa ifjorZu gqvk gS vkSj vHkh Hkh gks jgk gS]
rks vki ;g tkudj vk'p;Zpfdr gksaxs fd oSKkfud
;g lc oSQls tkurs gSa\ mUgksaus bu egk}hiksa ,oa
egklkxjksa dh igys dh fLFkfr dk fu/kZj.k oSQls fd;k
gksxk\ bUgha iz'uksa osQ mÙkj vkSj buls lacaf/r iz'u gh
bl vè;k; dk fo"k; gSaA
egk}hih; izokg (Continental drift)
vVykafVd egklkxjh; rVjs[kk dh vko`Qfr dks è;ku ls
ns[ksaA bl egklkxj osQ nksuksa rjiQ dh rVjs[kk esa
vk'p;Ztud lefefr (Symmetry) gSA blh lekurk
osQ dkj.k cgqr ls oSKkfudksa us nf{k.kh o mÙkjh vesfjdk
rFkk ;wjksi o vizQhdk osQ ,d lkFk tqM+s gksus dh
laHkkouk dks O;Dr fd;kA foKku osQ bfrgkl osQ Kkr
vfHkys[kksa ls irk pyrk gS fd lu~ 1596 esa ,d Mp
ekufp=kosÙkk vczkge vkWjVsfy;l (Abraham
Ortelius) us loZizFke bl laHkkouk dks O;Dr fd;k
FkkA ,UVksfu;ks iSysXjhuh (Antonio Pellegrini) us
,d ekufp=k cuk;k] ftlesa rhuksa egk}hiksa dks bdêòk
fn[kk;k x;k FkkA teZu ekSlefon vYizsQM osxuj (Alfred
wegner) us ¶egk}hih; foLFkkiu fl¼kar¸ lu~ 1912
esa izLrkfor fd;kA ;g fl¼kar egk}hi ,oa egklkxjksa
osQ forj.k ls gh lacaf/r FkkA
bl fl¼kar dh vk/kjHkwr ladYiuk ;g Fkh fd
lHkh egk}hi ,d vosQys Hkw[kaM esa tqM+s gq, FksA osxuj
osQ vuqlkj vkt osQ lHkh egk}hi bl Hkw[kaM osQ Hkkx
Fks rFkk ;g ,d cM+s egklkxj ls f?kjk gqvk FkkA mUgksaus
bl cM+s egk}hi dks iSaft;k (Pangaea) dk uke
fn;kA iSaft;k dk vFkZ gS& laiw.kZ i`FohA fo'kky egklkxj
dks iSaFkkyklk (Panthalassa) dgk] ftldk vFkZ gS&
ty gh tyA osxuj osQ roZQ osQ vuqlkj yxHkx 20
djksM+ o"kZ igys bl cM+s egk}hi iSaft;k dk foHkktu
vkjaHk gqvkA iSaft;k igys nks cM+s egk}hih; fiaMksa ykjsf'k;k
(Laurasia) vkSj xksaMokukySaM (Gondwanaland)
ozQe'k% mÙkjh o nf{k.kh Hkw[kaMksa osQ :i esa foHkDr gqvkA
blosQ ckn ykjsf'k;k o xksMokukySaM /hjs&/hjs vusd
NksVs fgLlksa esa c¡V x,] tks vkt osQ egk}hi osQ :i gSaA
egk}hih; foLFkkiu osQ i{k esa vusd izek.k Hkh izLrqr
fd, x, gSa] buesa ls oqQN bl izdkj gSaA
egk}hih; foLFkkiu osQ i{k esa izek.k (Evidences
in support of continental drift)
egk}hiksa esa lkE;
nf{k.k vesfjdk o vizQhdk osQ vkeus&lkeus dh rVjs[kk,¡
vn~Hkqr o =kqfVjfgr lkE; fn[kkrh gSaA ;g Hkh è;ku nsus
;ksX; gS fd 1964 bZ0 esa cqyMZ (Bullard) us ,d
fi
HkkSfrd Hkwxksy osQ ewy fl¼kar
32
oaQI;wVj izksxzke dh lgk;rk ls vVykafVd rVksa dks
tksM+rs gq, ,d ekufp=k rS;kj fd;k FkkA rVksa dk ;g
lkE; fcYoqQy lgh fl¼ gqvkA lkE; fcBkus dh ;g
dksf'k'k vkt dh rVjs[kk dh vis{kk 1]000 iSQne dh
xgjkbZ dh rVjs[kk osQ lkFk dh xbZ FkhA
egklkxjksa osQ ikj pêðkuksa dh vk;q esa lekurk
vk/qfud le; esa fodflr dh xbZ jsfM;ksfefVªd dky
fu/kZj.k (Radiometric dating) fof/ ls egklkxjksa
osQ ikj egk}hiksa dh pêðkuksa osQ fuekZ.k osQ le; dks
ljyrk ls tkuk tk ldrk gSA 200 djksM+ o"kZ izkphu
'kSy lewgksa dh ,d iêðh czkthy rV vkSj if'peh
vizQhdk osQ rV ij feyrh gSa] tks vkil esa esy [kkrh
gSA nf{k.kh vesfjdk o vizQhdk dh rVjs[kk osQ lkFk
ik, tkus okys vkjafHkd leqnzh fu{ksi tqjsfld dky
(Jurassic age) osQ gSaA blls ;g irk pyrk gS fd
bl le; ls igys egklkxj dh mifLFkfr ogk¡ ugha FkhA
fVykbV (Tillite)
fVykbV os volknh pêðkusa gSa] tks fgekuh fu{ksi.k ls
fufeZr gksrh gSaA Hkkjr esa ik, tkus okys xksaMokuk Js.kh
osQ ryNVksa osQ izfr:i nf{k.k xksyk¼Z osQ N% fofHkUu
LFky[kaMksa esa feyrs gSaA xksaMokuk Js.kh osQ vk/kj ry esa
?kus fVykbV gSa] tks foLr`r o yacs le; rd fgevkoj.k
;k fgekPNknu dh vksj bafxr djrs gSaA blh ozQe osQ
izfr:i Hkkjr osQ vfrfjDr vizQhdk] iQkWdySaM }hi]
eSMkxkLdj] vaVkoZQfVd vkSj vkLVªsfy;k esa feyrs gSaA
xksaMokuk Js.kh osQ ryNVksa dh ;g lekurk Li"V djrh
gS fd bu LFky[kaMksa osQ bfrgkl esa Hkh lekurk jgh gSA
fgekuh fufeZr fVykbV pêðkusa iqjkru tyok;q vkSj
egk}hiksa osQ foLFkkiu osQ Li"V izek.k izLrqr djrs gSaA
Iyslj fu{ksi (Placer deposits)
?kkuk rV ij lksus osQ cM+s fu{ksiksa dh mifLFkfr o mn~xe
pêðkuksa dh vuqifLFkfr ,d vk'p;Ztud rF; gSA
lksuk;qDr f'kjk,¡ (Gold bearing veins) czkthy esa
ikbZ tkrh gSaA vr% ;g Li"V gS fd ?kkuk esa feyus okys
lksus osQ fu{ksi czkthy iBkj ls ml le; fudys gksaxs]
tc ;s nksuksa egk}hi ,d nwljs ls tqM+s FksA
thok'eksa dk forj.k (Distribution of fossils)
;fn leqnzh vojks/d osQ nksuksa foijhr fdukjksa ij ty
o LFky esa ik, tkus okys ikS/ksa o tarqvksa dh leku
iztkfr;k¡ ikbZ tk,] rks muosQ forj.k dh O;k[;k esa
leL;k,¡ mRiUu gksrh gSaA bl izs{k.k ls fd ^ySewj*
Hkkjr] eSMkxkLdj o vizQhdk esa feyrs gSa] oqQN oSKkfudksa
us bu rhuksa LFky[kaMksa dks tksM+dj ,d lrr~ LFky[kaM
^ysewfj;k* (Lemuria) dh mifLFkfr dks LohdkjkA
eslkslkjl (Mesosaurus) uke osQ NksVs jsaxus okys
tho osQoy mFkys [kkjs ikuh esa gh jg ldrs Fks& budh
vfLFk;k¡ osQoy nf{k.k vizQhdk osQ nf{k.kh osQi izkar
vkSj czkthy esa bjkoj 'kSy lewg esa gh feyrs gSaA ;s
nksuksa LFkku vkt ,d nwljs ls 4]800 fd0eh0 dh nwjh
ij gSa vkSj buosQ chp esa ,d egklkxj fo|eku gSA
izokg laca/h cy (Force for drifting)
osxuj osQ vuqlkj egk}hih; foLFkkiu osQ nks dkj.k Fks%
(1) iksyj ;k /qzoh; Ýyhbax cy (Polar fleeing
force) vkSj (2) Tokjh; cy (Tidal force)A
/qzoh; Ýyhbax cy i`Foh osQ ?kw.kZu ls lacaf/r gSA vki
tkurs gSa fd i`Foh dh vko`Qfr ,d laiw.kZ xksys tSlh
ugha gS_ oju~ ;g Hkweè;js[kk ij mHkjh gqbZ gSA ;g mHkkj
i`Foh osQ ?kw.kZu osQ dkj.k gSA nwljk cy] tks osxuj
egksn; us lq>k;k& og Tokjh; cy gS] tks lw;Z o panzek
osQ vkd"kZ.k ls laca¼ gS] ftlls egklkxjksa esa Tokj iSnk
gksrs gSaA osxuj dk ekuuk Fkk fd djksM+ksa o"kks± osQ nkSjku
;s cy izHkko'kkyh gksdj foLFkkiu osQ fy, l{ke gks
x,A ;|fi cgqr ls oSKkfud bu nksuksa gh cyksa dks
egk}hih; foLFkkiu osQ fy, loZFkk vi;kZIr le>rs gSaA
laogu&/kjk fl¼kar (Convectional current
theory)
1930 osQ n'kd eas vkFkZj gksEl (Arthur Holmes)
us eSaVy (Mantle) Hkkx esa laogu&/kjkvksa osQ izHkko
dh laHkkouk O;Dr dhA ;s /kjk,¡ jsfM;ks,fDVo rRoksa ls
mRiUu rki fHkUurk ls eSaVy Hkkx esa mRiUu gksrh gSaA
gksEl us roZQ fn;k fd iwjs eSaVy Hkkx esa bl izdkj dh
/kjkvksa dk ra=k fo|eku gSA ;g mu izokg cyksa dh
O;k[;k izLrqr djus dk iz;kl Fkk] ftlosQ vk/kj ij
ledkyhu oSKkfudksa us egk}hih; foLFkkiu fl¼kar dks
udkj fn;kA
egklkxjksa vkSj egk}hiksa dk forj.k
33
egklkxjh; v/Lry dk ekufp=k.k (Mapping of
the ocean floor)
egklkxjksa dh cukoV vkSj vkdkj ij foLr`r 'kks/] ;g
Li"V djrs gSa fd egklkxjksa dk v/Lry ,d foLr`r
eSnku ugha gS] oju~ mueas Hkh mPpkop ik;k tkrk gSA
;q¼ksÙkj dky (Post-war period) egklkxjh; vèkLry
osQ fu:i.k vfHk;ku us egklkxjh; mPpkop laca/h
foLr`r tkudkjh izLrqr dh vkSj ;g fn[kk;k fd blosQ
v/Lryh esa tyeXu ioZrh; dVosaQ o xgjh [kkb;k¡ gSa]
tks izk;% egk}hiksa osQ fdukjksa ij fLFkr gSaA eè; egklkxjh;
dVosaQ Tokykeq[kh mn~xkj osQ :i esa lcls vf/d lfozQ;
ik;h xbZA egklkxjh; iiZVh dh pêðkuksa osQ dky fu/kZj.k
(Dating) us ;g rF; Li"V dj fn;k fd egklkxjksa osQ
fury dh pêðkusa egk}hih; Hkkxksa esa ikbZ tkus okyh pêðkuksa
dh vis{kk uohu gSaA egklkxjh; dVd osQ nksuksa rjiQ dh
pêðkusa] tks dVd ls cjkcj nwjh ij fLFkr gSa] mu dh
vk;q o jpuk esa Hkh vk'p;Ztud lekurk ikbZ tkrh gSA
tk ldrk gSA ;s Hkkx gSa % (1) egk}hih; lhek] (2)
xgjs leqnzh csflu vkSj (3) eè;&egklkxjh; dVdA
egk}hih; lhek (Continental margins)
;s egk}hih; fdukjksa vkSj xgjs leqnzh csflu osQ chp
dk Hkkx gSA blesa egk}hih; eXurV] egk}hih; <ky]
egk}hih; mHkkj vkSj xgjh egklkxjh; [kkb;k¡ vkfn
'kkfey gSaA egklkxjksa o egk}hiksa osQ forj.k dks le>us
osQ fy, xgjh&egklkxjh; [kkb;ksa osQ {ks=k fo'ks"k egRoiw.kZ
vkSj jkspd gSaA
foryh; eSnku (Abyssal Plains)
;s foLr`r eSnku egk}hih; rVksa o eè; egklkxjh;
dVdksa osQ chp ik, tkrs gSaA foryh; eSnku] og {ks=k
gSa] tgk¡ egk}hiksa ls cgkdj yk, x, volkn buosQ rVksa
ls nwj fu{ksfir gksrs gSaA
eè; egklkxjh; dVd (Mid-oceanic ridges)
eè; egklkxjh; dVd vkil esa tqM+s gq, ioZrksa dh
,d Ük`a[kyk cukrh gSA egklkxjh; ty esa Mwch gqbZ] ;g
i`Foh osQ /jkry ij ikbZ tkus okyh laHkor% lcls yach
ioZr  Ük`a[kyk gSA bu dVdksa osQ eè;orhZ f'k[kj ij ,d
fjÝV] ,d izHkktd iBkj vkSj bldh yackbZ osQ lkFk&lkFk
ik'oZ eaMy bldh fo'ks"krk gSA eè;orhZ Hkkx esa mifLFkr
nzks.kh okLro esa lfozQ; Tokykeq[kh {ks=k gSA fiNys
vè;k; esa eè;&egklkxjh; Tokykeq[kh osQ :i esa ,sls
Tokykeqf[k;ksa dh tkudkjh nh xbZ gSA
HkwoaQi o Tokykeqf[k;ksa dk forj.k (Distribution
of earthquakes and volcanoes)
HkwoaQih; xfrfof/ vkSj Tokykeq[kh forj.k dk fn, x,
ekfup=k 4-5 (v) vkSj (c) eas vè;;u djsaA vki
vVykafVd egklkxj osQ eè;orhZ Hkkx esa] rV js[kk osQ
yxHkx lekukarj] ,d fcanq js[kk ns[ksaxsA ;g vkxs fgan
egklkxj rd tkrh gSA Hkkjrh; miegk}hi osQ FkksM+k
nf{k.k esa ;g nks Hkkxksa esa c¡V tkrh gS] ftldh ,d 'kk[kk
iwohZ vizQhdk dh vksj pyh tkrh gS vkSj nwljh e;uekj
ls gksrh gqbZ U;w fxuh ij ,d ,slh gh js[kk ls fey tkrh
egklkxjh; v/Lry dh cukoV (Ocean floor
configuration)
bl Hkkx esa ge egklkxjh; ry dh cukoV ls
lacaf/r oqQN ,sls rF;ksa dk vè;;u djsaxs] tks egklkxj
o egk}hiksa osQ forj.k dks le>us esa ennxkj gksaxsA
egklkxjh; ry dh vko`Qfr;k¡ vè;k; 13 esa foLrkj ls
of.kZr gSaA xgjkbZ o mPpkop osQ izdkj osQ vk/kj ij]
egklkxjh; ry dks rhu izeq[k Hkkxksa esa foHkkftr fd;k
fp=k 4-1 % egklkxjh; v/Lry (Ocean floor)
HkkSfrd Hkwxksy osQ ewy fl¼kar
34
 fp=k 4-2 % HkwoaQi o Tokykeqf[k;ksa dk forj.k
gSA vki ;g ik,¡xs fd ;g fcanqjs[kk eè;&egklkxjh;
dVdksa osQ le:i gSA HkwoaQih; laosQUnz.k dk nwljk {ks=k
Nk;kafdr es[kyk (Shaded belt) osQ ekè;e ls
fn[kk;k x;k gS] tks vYikbu&fgeky; (Alpine-
Himalayan) Jsf.k;ksa osQ vkSj iz'kkar egklkxjh;
fdukjksa osQ le:i gSA lkekU;r% eè; egklkxjh;
dVdksa osQ {ks=k esa HkwoaQi osQ mn~xe osaQnz de xgjkbZ ij
gSa tcfd vYikbu&fgeky; iêðh o iz'kkar egklkxjh;
fdukjksa ij ;s osaQnz vf/d xgjkbZ ij gSaA Tokykeq[kh
ekufp=k Hkh blh dk vuqdj.k djrs gSaA iz'kkar egklkxj
osQ fdukjksa dks lfozQ; Tokykeq[kh osQ {ks=k gksus osQ dkj.k
^fjax vkWiQ iQk;j* (Ring of fire) Hkh dgk tkrk gSA
lkxjh; v/Lry dk foLrkj
tSlk fd mQij o.kZu fd;k x;k gS] izokg mijkar
vè;;uksa us egRoiw.kZ tkudkjh izLrqr dh] tks osxuj osQ
egk}hih; foLFkkiu fl¼kar osQ le; miyC/ ugha FkhA
pêðkuksa osQ iqjk pqacdh; vè;;u vkSj egklkxjh; ry
osQ ekufp=k.k us fo'ks"k :i ls fuEu rF;ksa dks mtkxj
fd;k%
(i) ;g ns[kk x;k fd eè; egklkxjh; dVdksa osQ
lkFk&lkFk Tokykeq[kh mn~xkj lkekU; fozQ;k gS
vkSj ;s mn~xkj bl {ks=k esa cM+h ek=kk esa ykok
ckgj fudkyrs gSaA
(ii) egklkxjh; dVd osQ eè; Hkkx osQ nksuksa rjiQ
leku nwjh ij ikbZ tkus okyh pêðkuksa osQ fuekZ.k
dk le;] lajpuk] la?kVu vkSj pqacdh; xq.kksa
esa lekurk ikbZ tkrh gSA egklkxjh; dVdksa osQ
lehi dh pêðkuksa esa lkekU; pqacdRo /qzo.k
(Normal polarity) ikbZ tkrh gS rFkk ;s
pêðkusa uohure gSaA dVdksa osQ 'kh"kZ ls nwj
pêðkuksa dh vk;q Hkh vf/d gSA
(iii) egklkxjh; iiZVh dh pêðkusa egk}hih; iiZVh
dh pêðkuksa dh vis{kk vf/d ubZ gSaA egklkxjh;
iiZVh dh pêðkusa dgha Hkh 20 djksM+ o"kZ ls
vf/d iqjkuh ugha gSaA
Page 5


egklkxjksa vkSj egk}hiksa dk forj.k
vè;k;
Nys vè;k; esa vkius HkwxHkZ osQ fo"k; esa i<+kA
vki lalkj osQ ekufp=k ls Hkh ifjfpr gSaA vki
tkurs gSa fd i`Foh osQ 29 izfr'kr Hkkx ij egk}hi vkSj
ckdh ij egklkxj iSQys gq, gSaA egk}hiksa vkSj egklkxjksa
dh vofLFkfr] tSlkfd vkt ekufp=k ij fn[kkbZ nsrh gS]
ges'kk ls ,slh ugha jgh gSA blosQ vfrfjDr] ;g Hkh
,d rF; gS fd vkus okys le; esa Hkh egk}hi o
egklkxjksa dh fLFkfr vkt tSlh ugha jgsxhA vxj ,slk
gS rks iz'u ;g gS fd iqjkdky esa budh vofLFkfr oSQlh
Fkh\ budh vofLFkfr esa ifjorZu D;ksa vkSj oSQls gksrk
gS\ ;fn ;g lp gS fd egk}hiksa vkSj egklkxjksa dh
vofLFkfr esa ifjorZu gqvk gS vkSj vHkh Hkh gks jgk gS]
rks vki ;g tkudj vk'p;Zpfdr gksaxs fd oSKkfud
;g lc oSQls tkurs gSa\ mUgksaus bu egk}hiksa ,oa
egklkxjksa dh igys dh fLFkfr dk fu/kZj.k oSQls fd;k
gksxk\ bUgha iz'uksa osQ mÙkj vkSj buls lacaf/r iz'u gh
bl vè;k; dk fo"k; gSaA
egk}hih; izokg (Continental drift)
vVykafVd egklkxjh; rVjs[kk dh vko`Qfr dks è;ku ls
ns[ksaA bl egklkxj osQ nksuksa rjiQ dh rVjs[kk esa
vk'p;Ztud lefefr (Symmetry) gSA blh lekurk
osQ dkj.k cgqr ls oSKkfudksa us nf{k.kh o mÙkjh vesfjdk
rFkk ;wjksi o vizQhdk osQ ,d lkFk tqM+s gksus dh
laHkkouk dks O;Dr fd;kA foKku osQ bfrgkl osQ Kkr
vfHkys[kksa ls irk pyrk gS fd lu~ 1596 esa ,d Mp
ekufp=kosÙkk vczkge vkWjVsfy;l (Abraham
Ortelius) us loZizFke bl laHkkouk dks O;Dr fd;k
FkkA ,UVksfu;ks iSysXjhuh (Antonio Pellegrini) us
,d ekufp=k cuk;k] ftlesa rhuksa egk}hiksa dks bdêòk
fn[kk;k x;k FkkA teZu ekSlefon vYizsQM osxuj (Alfred
wegner) us ¶egk}hih; foLFkkiu fl¼kar¸ lu~ 1912
esa izLrkfor fd;kA ;g fl¼kar egk}hi ,oa egklkxjksa
osQ forj.k ls gh lacaf/r FkkA
bl fl¼kar dh vk/kjHkwr ladYiuk ;g Fkh fd
lHkh egk}hi ,d vosQys Hkw[kaM esa tqM+s gq, FksA osxuj
osQ vuqlkj vkt osQ lHkh egk}hi bl Hkw[kaM osQ Hkkx
Fks rFkk ;g ,d cM+s egklkxj ls f?kjk gqvk FkkA mUgksaus
bl cM+s egk}hi dks iSaft;k (Pangaea) dk uke
fn;kA iSaft;k dk vFkZ gS& laiw.kZ i`FohA fo'kky egklkxj
dks iSaFkkyklk (Panthalassa) dgk] ftldk vFkZ gS&
ty gh tyA osxuj osQ roZQ osQ vuqlkj yxHkx 20
djksM+ o"kZ igys bl cM+s egk}hi iSaft;k dk foHkktu
vkjaHk gqvkA iSaft;k igys nks cM+s egk}hih; fiaMksa ykjsf'k;k
(Laurasia) vkSj xksaMokukySaM (Gondwanaland)
ozQe'k% mÙkjh o nf{k.kh Hkw[kaMksa osQ :i esa foHkDr gqvkA
blosQ ckn ykjsf'k;k o xksMokukySaM /hjs&/hjs vusd
NksVs fgLlksa esa c¡V x,] tks vkt osQ egk}hi osQ :i gSaA
egk}hih; foLFkkiu osQ i{k esa vusd izek.k Hkh izLrqr
fd, x, gSa] buesa ls oqQN bl izdkj gSaA
egk}hih; foLFkkiu osQ i{k esa izek.k (Evidences
in support of continental drift)
egk}hiksa esa lkE;
nf{k.k vesfjdk o vizQhdk osQ vkeus&lkeus dh rVjs[kk,¡
vn~Hkqr o =kqfVjfgr lkE; fn[kkrh gSaA ;g Hkh è;ku nsus
;ksX; gS fd 1964 bZ0 esa cqyMZ (Bullard) us ,d
fi
HkkSfrd Hkwxksy osQ ewy fl¼kar
32
oaQI;wVj izksxzke dh lgk;rk ls vVykafVd rVksa dks
tksM+rs gq, ,d ekufp=k rS;kj fd;k FkkA rVksa dk ;g
lkE; fcYoqQy lgh fl¼ gqvkA lkE; fcBkus dh ;g
dksf'k'k vkt dh rVjs[kk dh vis{kk 1]000 iSQne dh
xgjkbZ dh rVjs[kk osQ lkFk dh xbZ FkhA
egklkxjksa osQ ikj pêðkuksa dh vk;q esa lekurk
vk/qfud le; esa fodflr dh xbZ jsfM;ksfefVªd dky
fu/kZj.k (Radiometric dating) fof/ ls egklkxjksa
osQ ikj egk}hiksa dh pêðkuksa osQ fuekZ.k osQ le; dks
ljyrk ls tkuk tk ldrk gSA 200 djksM+ o"kZ izkphu
'kSy lewgksa dh ,d iêðh czkthy rV vkSj if'peh
vizQhdk osQ rV ij feyrh gSa] tks vkil esa esy [kkrh
gSA nf{k.kh vesfjdk o vizQhdk dh rVjs[kk osQ lkFk
ik, tkus okys vkjafHkd leqnzh fu{ksi tqjsfld dky
(Jurassic age) osQ gSaA blls ;g irk pyrk gS fd
bl le; ls igys egklkxj dh mifLFkfr ogk¡ ugha FkhA
fVykbV (Tillite)
fVykbV os volknh pêðkusa gSa] tks fgekuh fu{ksi.k ls
fufeZr gksrh gSaA Hkkjr esa ik, tkus okys xksaMokuk Js.kh
osQ ryNVksa osQ izfr:i nf{k.k xksyk¼Z osQ N% fofHkUu
LFky[kaMksa esa feyrs gSaA xksaMokuk Js.kh osQ vk/kj ry esa
?kus fVykbV gSa] tks foLr`r o yacs le; rd fgevkoj.k
;k fgekPNknu dh vksj bafxr djrs gSaA blh ozQe osQ
izfr:i Hkkjr osQ vfrfjDr vizQhdk] iQkWdySaM }hi]
eSMkxkLdj] vaVkoZQfVd vkSj vkLVªsfy;k esa feyrs gSaA
xksaMokuk Js.kh osQ ryNVksa dh ;g lekurk Li"V djrh
gS fd bu LFky[kaMksa osQ bfrgkl esa Hkh lekurk jgh gSA
fgekuh fufeZr fVykbV pêðkusa iqjkru tyok;q vkSj
egk}hiksa osQ foLFkkiu osQ Li"V izek.k izLrqr djrs gSaA
Iyslj fu{ksi (Placer deposits)
?kkuk rV ij lksus osQ cM+s fu{ksiksa dh mifLFkfr o mn~xe
pêðkuksa dh vuqifLFkfr ,d vk'p;Ztud rF; gSA
lksuk;qDr f'kjk,¡ (Gold bearing veins) czkthy esa
ikbZ tkrh gSaA vr% ;g Li"V gS fd ?kkuk esa feyus okys
lksus osQ fu{ksi czkthy iBkj ls ml le; fudys gksaxs]
tc ;s nksuksa egk}hi ,d nwljs ls tqM+s FksA
thok'eksa dk forj.k (Distribution of fossils)
;fn leqnzh vojks/d osQ nksuksa foijhr fdukjksa ij ty
o LFky esa ik, tkus okys ikS/ksa o tarqvksa dh leku
iztkfr;k¡ ikbZ tk,] rks muosQ forj.k dh O;k[;k esa
leL;k,¡ mRiUu gksrh gSaA bl izs{k.k ls fd ^ySewj*
Hkkjr] eSMkxkLdj o vizQhdk esa feyrs gSa] oqQN oSKkfudksa
us bu rhuksa LFky[kaMksa dks tksM+dj ,d lrr~ LFky[kaM
^ysewfj;k* (Lemuria) dh mifLFkfr dks LohdkjkA
eslkslkjl (Mesosaurus) uke osQ NksVs jsaxus okys
tho osQoy mFkys [kkjs ikuh esa gh jg ldrs Fks& budh
vfLFk;k¡ osQoy nf{k.k vizQhdk osQ nf{k.kh osQi izkar
vkSj czkthy esa bjkoj 'kSy lewg esa gh feyrs gSaA ;s
nksuksa LFkku vkt ,d nwljs ls 4]800 fd0eh0 dh nwjh
ij gSa vkSj buosQ chp esa ,d egklkxj fo|eku gSA
izokg laca/h cy (Force for drifting)
osxuj osQ vuqlkj egk}hih; foLFkkiu osQ nks dkj.k Fks%
(1) iksyj ;k /qzoh; Ýyhbax cy (Polar fleeing
force) vkSj (2) Tokjh; cy (Tidal force)A
/qzoh; Ýyhbax cy i`Foh osQ ?kw.kZu ls lacaf/r gSA vki
tkurs gSa fd i`Foh dh vko`Qfr ,d laiw.kZ xksys tSlh
ugha gS_ oju~ ;g Hkweè;js[kk ij mHkjh gqbZ gSA ;g mHkkj
i`Foh osQ ?kw.kZu osQ dkj.k gSA nwljk cy] tks osxuj
egksn; us lq>k;k& og Tokjh; cy gS] tks lw;Z o panzek
osQ vkd"kZ.k ls laca¼ gS] ftlls egklkxjksa esa Tokj iSnk
gksrs gSaA osxuj dk ekuuk Fkk fd djksM+ksa o"kks± osQ nkSjku
;s cy izHkko'kkyh gksdj foLFkkiu osQ fy, l{ke gks
x,A ;|fi cgqr ls oSKkfud bu nksuksa gh cyksa dks
egk}hih; foLFkkiu osQ fy, loZFkk vi;kZIr le>rs gSaA
laogu&/kjk fl¼kar (Convectional current
theory)
1930 osQ n'kd eas vkFkZj gksEl (Arthur Holmes)
us eSaVy (Mantle) Hkkx esa laogu&/kjkvksa osQ izHkko
dh laHkkouk O;Dr dhA ;s /kjk,¡ jsfM;ks,fDVo rRoksa ls
mRiUu rki fHkUurk ls eSaVy Hkkx esa mRiUu gksrh gSaA
gksEl us roZQ fn;k fd iwjs eSaVy Hkkx esa bl izdkj dh
/kjkvksa dk ra=k fo|eku gSA ;g mu izokg cyksa dh
O;k[;k izLrqr djus dk iz;kl Fkk] ftlosQ vk/kj ij
ledkyhu oSKkfudksa us egk}hih; foLFkkiu fl¼kar dks
udkj fn;kA
egklkxjksa vkSj egk}hiksa dk forj.k
33
egklkxjh; v/Lry dk ekufp=k.k (Mapping of
the ocean floor)
egklkxjksa dh cukoV vkSj vkdkj ij foLr`r 'kks/] ;g
Li"V djrs gSa fd egklkxjksa dk v/Lry ,d foLr`r
eSnku ugha gS] oju~ mueas Hkh mPpkop ik;k tkrk gSA
;q¼ksÙkj dky (Post-war period) egklkxjh; vèkLry
osQ fu:i.k vfHk;ku us egklkxjh; mPpkop laca/h
foLr`r tkudkjh izLrqr dh vkSj ;g fn[kk;k fd blosQ
v/Lryh esa tyeXu ioZrh; dVosaQ o xgjh [kkb;k¡ gSa]
tks izk;% egk}hiksa osQ fdukjksa ij fLFkr gSaA eè; egklkxjh;
dVosaQ Tokykeq[kh mn~xkj osQ :i esa lcls vf/d lfozQ;
ik;h xbZA egklkxjh; iiZVh dh pêðkuksa osQ dky fu/kZj.k
(Dating) us ;g rF; Li"V dj fn;k fd egklkxjksa osQ
fury dh pêðkusa egk}hih; Hkkxksa esa ikbZ tkus okyh pêðkuksa
dh vis{kk uohu gSaA egklkxjh; dVd osQ nksuksa rjiQ dh
pêðkusa] tks dVd ls cjkcj nwjh ij fLFkr gSa] mu dh
vk;q o jpuk esa Hkh vk'p;Ztud lekurk ikbZ tkrh gSA
tk ldrk gSA ;s Hkkx gSa % (1) egk}hih; lhek] (2)
xgjs leqnzh csflu vkSj (3) eè;&egklkxjh; dVdA
egk}hih; lhek (Continental margins)
;s egk}hih; fdukjksa vkSj xgjs leqnzh csflu osQ chp
dk Hkkx gSA blesa egk}hih; eXurV] egk}hih; <ky]
egk}hih; mHkkj vkSj xgjh egklkxjh; [kkb;k¡ vkfn
'kkfey gSaA egklkxjksa o egk}hiksa osQ forj.k dks le>us
osQ fy, xgjh&egklkxjh; [kkb;ksa osQ {ks=k fo'ks"k egRoiw.kZ
vkSj jkspd gSaA
foryh; eSnku (Abyssal Plains)
;s foLr`r eSnku egk}hih; rVksa o eè; egklkxjh;
dVdksa osQ chp ik, tkrs gSaA foryh; eSnku] og {ks=k
gSa] tgk¡ egk}hiksa ls cgkdj yk, x, volkn buosQ rVksa
ls nwj fu{ksfir gksrs gSaA
eè; egklkxjh; dVd (Mid-oceanic ridges)
eè; egklkxjh; dVd vkil esa tqM+s gq, ioZrksa dh
,d Ük`a[kyk cukrh gSA egklkxjh; ty esa Mwch gqbZ] ;g
i`Foh osQ /jkry ij ikbZ tkus okyh laHkor% lcls yach
ioZr  Ük`a[kyk gSA bu dVdksa osQ eè;orhZ f'k[kj ij ,d
fjÝV] ,d izHkktd iBkj vkSj bldh yackbZ osQ lkFk&lkFk
ik'oZ eaMy bldh fo'ks"krk gSA eè;orhZ Hkkx esa mifLFkr
nzks.kh okLro esa lfozQ; Tokykeq[kh {ks=k gSA fiNys
vè;k; esa eè;&egklkxjh; Tokykeq[kh osQ :i esa ,sls
Tokykeqf[k;ksa dh tkudkjh nh xbZ gSA
HkwoaQi o Tokykeqf[k;ksa dk forj.k (Distribution
of earthquakes and volcanoes)
HkwoaQih; xfrfof/ vkSj Tokykeq[kh forj.k dk fn, x,
ekfup=k 4-5 (v) vkSj (c) eas vè;;u djsaA vki
vVykafVd egklkxj osQ eè;orhZ Hkkx esa] rV js[kk osQ
yxHkx lekukarj] ,d fcanq js[kk ns[ksaxsA ;g vkxs fgan
egklkxj rd tkrh gSA Hkkjrh; miegk}hi osQ FkksM+k
nf{k.k esa ;g nks Hkkxksa esa c¡V tkrh gS] ftldh ,d 'kk[kk
iwohZ vizQhdk dh vksj pyh tkrh gS vkSj nwljh e;uekj
ls gksrh gqbZ U;w fxuh ij ,d ,slh gh js[kk ls fey tkrh
egklkxjh; v/Lry dh cukoV (Ocean floor
configuration)
bl Hkkx esa ge egklkxjh; ry dh cukoV ls
lacaf/r oqQN ,sls rF;ksa dk vè;;u djsaxs] tks egklkxj
o egk}hiksa osQ forj.k dks le>us esa ennxkj gksaxsA
egklkxjh; ry dh vko`Qfr;k¡ vè;k; 13 esa foLrkj ls
of.kZr gSaA xgjkbZ o mPpkop osQ izdkj osQ vk/kj ij]
egklkxjh; ry dks rhu izeq[k Hkkxksa esa foHkkftr fd;k
fp=k 4-1 % egklkxjh; v/Lry (Ocean floor)
HkkSfrd Hkwxksy osQ ewy fl¼kar
34
 fp=k 4-2 % HkwoaQi o Tokykeqf[k;ksa dk forj.k
gSA vki ;g ik,¡xs fd ;g fcanqjs[kk eè;&egklkxjh;
dVdksa osQ le:i gSA HkwoaQih; laosQUnz.k dk nwljk {ks=k
Nk;kafdr es[kyk (Shaded belt) osQ ekè;e ls
fn[kk;k x;k gS] tks vYikbu&fgeky; (Alpine-
Himalayan) Jsf.k;ksa osQ vkSj iz'kkar egklkxjh;
fdukjksa osQ le:i gSA lkekU;r% eè; egklkxjh;
dVdksa osQ {ks=k esa HkwoaQi osQ mn~xe osaQnz de xgjkbZ ij
gSa tcfd vYikbu&fgeky; iêðh o iz'kkar egklkxjh;
fdukjksa ij ;s osaQnz vf/d xgjkbZ ij gSaA Tokykeq[kh
ekufp=k Hkh blh dk vuqdj.k djrs gSaA iz'kkar egklkxj
osQ fdukjksa dks lfozQ; Tokykeq[kh osQ {ks=k gksus osQ dkj.k
^fjax vkWiQ iQk;j* (Ring of fire) Hkh dgk tkrk gSA
lkxjh; v/Lry dk foLrkj
tSlk fd mQij o.kZu fd;k x;k gS] izokg mijkar
vè;;uksa us egRoiw.kZ tkudkjh izLrqr dh] tks osxuj osQ
egk}hih; foLFkkiu fl¼kar osQ le; miyC/ ugha FkhA
pêðkuksa osQ iqjk pqacdh; vè;;u vkSj egklkxjh; ry
osQ ekufp=k.k us fo'ks"k :i ls fuEu rF;ksa dks mtkxj
fd;k%
(i) ;g ns[kk x;k fd eè; egklkxjh; dVdksa osQ
lkFk&lkFk Tokykeq[kh mn~xkj lkekU; fozQ;k gS
vkSj ;s mn~xkj bl {ks=k esa cM+h ek=kk esa ykok
ckgj fudkyrs gSaA
(ii) egklkxjh; dVd osQ eè; Hkkx osQ nksuksa rjiQ
leku nwjh ij ikbZ tkus okyh pêðkuksa osQ fuekZ.k
dk le;] lajpuk] la?kVu vkSj pqacdh; xq.kksa
esa lekurk ikbZ tkrh gSA egklkxjh; dVdksa osQ
lehi dh pêðkuksa esa lkekU; pqacdRo /qzo.k
(Normal polarity) ikbZ tkrh gS rFkk ;s
pêðkusa uohure gSaA dVdksa osQ 'kh"kZ ls nwj
pêðkuksa dh vk;q Hkh vf/d gSA
(iii) egklkxjh; iiZVh dh pêðkusa egk}hih; iiZVh
dh pêðkuksa dh vis{kk vf/d ubZ gSaA egklkxjh;
iiZVh dh pêðkusa dgha Hkh 20 djksM+ o"kZ ls
vf/d iqjkuh ugha gSaA
egklkxjksa vkSj egk}hiksa dk forj.k
35
fp=k 4-3 % lkxjh; v/Lry foLrkj
fp=k 4-4 % HkwoSKkfud dkyksa esa egk}hiksa dh fLFkfr
(iv) xgjh [kkb;ksa esa HkwoaQi osQ mn~xe vf/d xgjkbZ
ij gSaA tcfd eè;&egklkxjh; dVdksa osQ {ks=k
esa HkwoaQi mn~xe osaQnz (Foci) de xgjkbZ ij
fo|eku gSaA
bu rF;ksa vkSj eè; egklkxjh; dVdksa osQ nksuksa
rjiQ dh pêðkuksa osQ pqacdh; xq.kksa osQ fo'ys"k.k osQ
vk/kj ij gsl (Hess) us lu~ 1961 esa ,d ifjdYiuk
izLrqr dh] ftls ^lkxjh; v/Lry foLrkj* (Sea floor
spreading) osQ uke ls tkuk tkrk gSA gsl (Hess)
osQ rdkZuqlkj egklkxjh; dVdksa osQ 'kh"kZ ij yxkrkj
Tokykeq[kh mn~Hksnu ls egklkxjh; iiZVh esa foHksnu
gqvk vkSj u;k ykok bl njkj dks Hkjdj egklkxjh;
fp=k 4-4 % fiNys 5]400 yk[k o"kks± esa egk}hiksa dh xfrA
(1) vizQhdk_ (2) nf{k.k vesfjdk_ (3) vaVkoZQfVdk_
(4) vkWLVsªsfy;k_ (5) Hkkjr_ (6) phu_ (7) mÙkjh vesfjdk_
(8) ;wjksi_ (9) ,oa (10) lkbcsfj;k (,feykuh] 1992)
Read More
182 docs

Top Courses for UPSC

182 docs
Download as PDF
Explore Courses for UPSC exam

Top Courses for UPSC

Signup for Free!
Signup to see your scores go up within 7 days! Learn & Practice with 1000+ FREE Notes, Videos & Tests.
10M+ students study on EduRev
Related Searches

video lectures

,

past year papers

,

एनसीईआरटी पाठ्यपुस्तक: महासागरों और महाद्वीपों का वितरण | Must Read Old & New NCERTs for UPSC CSE (Hindi)

,

ppt

,

Important questions

,

एनसीईआरटी पाठ्यपुस्तक: महासागरों और महाद्वीपों का वितरण | Must Read Old & New NCERTs for UPSC CSE (Hindi)

,

Viva Questions

,

study material

,

Summary

,

Exam

,

MCQs

,

Extra Questions

,

pdf

,

shortcuts and tricks

,

Sample Paper

,

एनसीईआरटी पाठ्यपुस्तक: महासागरों और महाद्वीपों का वितरण | Must Read Old & New NCERTs for UPSC CSE (Hindi)

,

Semester Notes

,

mock tests for examination

,

Free

,

Objective type Questions

,

practice quizzes

,

Previous Year Questions with Solutions

;