Important Terminologies: A - D | Anthropology Optional for UPSC PDF Download

 Page 1


A
AAA. See american anthropological association.
Aboriginal. The earliest known occupant (or feature) of a region; often 
(capitalized) specifying indigenous peoples of Australia. “Aborigine” is 
often considered offensive. Early anthropologists and sociologists such as 
radcliffe-brown and durkheim were greatly interested in Australian 
Aboriginal societies. These have been examined by specialists such as 
B. Spencer and F. J. Gillen; and, more recently, by such writers as Howard 
Morphy and Ian Keen.
Abu Sunbul (Egypt). See burckhardt.
acculturation. A process by which one group of people’s identity is 
modified by meeting another: one culture introduces elements that are 
accepted or resisted by the other, leading to the weaker group remaining 
partially autonomous, the assimilation of the weaker group into the 
stronger unit, or occasionally a merged culture. Members of the dominant 
culture may be physically present or act on the other remotely. Even when 
acculturated, the weaker group may not totally assimilate. In general use, 
acculturation and assimilation may be used synonymously. See also 
syncretism, the adoption of elements of one religion into another.
acephalous. Having no head; of a state or people, having no formal leader 
(as in foraging cultures—see hunter-gatherer).
achievement/ascription. A distinction made by parsons, one of five such 
pattern variables, or sets of alternative social strategies. Achieved status 
derives from competition with one’s peers; ascribed status comes through 
Morris_c01.indd 1 Morris_c01.indd   1 12/1/2011 4:59:07 PM 12/1/2011   4:59:07 PM
Page 2


A
AAA. See american anthropological association.
Aboriginal. The earliest known occupant (or feature) of a region; often 
(capitalized) specifying indigenous peoples of Australia. “Aborigine” is 
often considered offensive. Early anthropologists and sociologists such as 
radcliffe-brown and durkheim were greatly interested in Australian 
Aboriginal societies. These have been examined by specialists such as 
B. Spencer and F. J. Gillen; and, more recently, by such writers as Howard 
Morphy and Ian Keen.
Abu Sunbul (Egypt). See burckhardt.
acculturation. A process by which one group of people’s identity is 
modified by meeting another: one culture introduces elements that are 
accepted or resisted by the other, leading to the weaker group remaining 
partially autonomous, the assimilation of the weaker group into the 
stronger unit, or occasionally a merged culture. Members of the dominant 
culture may be physically present or act on the other remotely. Even when 
acculturated, the weaker group may not totally assimilate. In general use, 
acculturation and assimilation may be used synonymously. See also 
syncretism, the adoption of elements of one religion into another.
acephalous. Having no head; of a state or people, having no formal leader 
(as in foraging cultures—see hunter-gatherer).
achievement/ascription. A distinction made by parsons, one of five such 
pattern variables, or sets of alternative social strategies. Achieved status 
derives from competition with one’s peers; ascribed status comes through 
Morris_c01.indd 1 Morris_c01.indd   1 12/1/2011 4:59:07 PM 12/1/2011   4:59:07 PM
one’s birth. While it may be claimed that “traditional” (see tradition) 
societies ascribe status and “modern” societies favor achievement, certain 
areas (e.g. gender roles) may be more complicated.
acquisition. See language acquisition.
act. To perform a deed, or the deed itself. The definition of an “act” has been 
much discussed in sociology. See also agency (the ability to act), broker, 
collective conscience, role, speech act. In common use, of course, 
“acting” often implies theatrical role-playing.
Further reading: Hastrup (2004).
action anthropology. A form of applied anthropology in which the 
anthropologist works for the interests of a minority culture that is in 
 difficulty of some kind, facilitating that culture’s decisions. Pioneered by 
Sol tax from the 1930s onward.
actor/network theory (ANT). A sociological approach associated with 
Bruno Latour, John Law, Michel Callon, and others that has influenced 
several social sciences. It stresses the performative nature of networks, 
and, controversially, can be said to ascribe agency, the ability to act, to non-
human elements of a network—people and the things they use interact to 
perpetuate the network. Critics have argued that ANT underplays the real 
political and power relations involved in its area of study. ANT is a branch 
of science and technology studies.
Further reading: Latour (2005).
adaptation. In biology and anthropology, the response of a population or 
individual to new environmental (see environment) factors. Individuals 
develop physically in differing ways according to local conditions; over a 
longer period populations evolve (see evolution). Adaptation also oper-
ates at various cultural levels, through behavior and social organization.
adat. Customary law in Islamic (see islam) South-East Asia, as distinct from 
religious law, or shari’a.
Further reading: Davidson & Henley (2007).
address terms. Relationship terms used directly with their subject, to talk to 
them. May be employed more loosely than reference terms (terms used to 
talk about others), as when calling an older cousin “uncle.”
adelphic polyandry. A form of polyandry—marriage to multiple 
husbands—in which the husbands are brothers (or are regarded as such). 
From Greek, adelphi (“brothers”).
adivasi. A member of the aboriginal tribal peoples of India. From Sanskrit, 
“original inhabitant.”
Morris_c01.indd 2 Morris_c01.indd   2 12/1/2011 4:59:08 PM 12/1/2011   4:59:08 PM
Page 3


A
AAA. See american anthropological association.
Aboriginal. The earliest known occupant (or feature) of a region; often 
(capitalized) specifying indigenous peoples of Australia. “Aborigine” is 
often considered offensive. Early anthropologists and sociologists such as 
radcliffe-brown and durkheim were greatly interested in Australian 
Aboriginal societies. These have been examined by specialists such as 
B. Spencer and F. J. Gillen; and, more recently, by such writers as Howard 
Morphy and Ian Keen.
Abu Sunbul (Egypt). See burckhardt.
acculturation. A process by which one group of people’s identity is 
modified by meeting another: one culture introduces elements that are 
accepted or resisted by the other, leading to the weaker group remaining 
partially autonomous, the assimilation of the weaker group into the 
stronger unit, or occasionally a merged culture. Members of the dominant 
culture may be physically present or act on the other remotely. Even when 
acculturated, the weaker group may not totally assimilate. In general use, 
acculturation and assimilation may be used synonymously. See also 
syncretism, the adoption of elements of one religion into another.
acephalous. Having no head; of a state or people, having no formal leader 
(as in foraging cultures—see hunter-gatherer).
achievement/ascription. A distinction made by parsons, one of five such 
pattern variables, or sets of alternative social strategies. Achieved status 
derives from competition with one’s peers; ascribed status comes through 
Morris_c01.indd 1 Morris_c01.indd   1 12/1/2011 4:59:07 PM 12/1/2011   4:59:07 PM
one’s birth. While it may be claimed that “traditional” (see tradition) 
societies ascribe status and “modern” societies favor achievement, certain 
areas (e.g. gender roles) may be more complicated.
acquisition. See language acquisition.
act. To perform a deed, or the deed itself. The definition of an “act” has been 
much discussed in sociology. See also agency (the ability to act), broker, 
collective conscience, role, speech act. In common use, of course, 
“acting” often implies theatrical role-playing.
Further reading: Hastrup (2004).
action anthropology. A form of applied anthropology in which the 
anthropologist works for the interests of a minority culture that is in 
 difficulty of some kind, facilitating that culture’s decisions. Pioneered by 
Sol tax from the 1930s onward.
actor/network theory (ANT). A sociological approach associated with 
Bruno Latour, John Law, Michel Callon, and others that has influenced 
several social sciences. It stresses the performative nature of networks, 
and, controversially, can be said to ascribe agency, the ability to act, to non-
human elements of a network—people and the things they use interact to 
perpetuate the network. Critics have argued that ANT underplays the real 
political and power relations involved in its area of study. ANT is a branch 
of science and technology studies.
Further reading: Latour (2005).
adaptation. In biology and anthropology, the response of a population or 
individual to new environmental (see environment) factors. Individuals 
develop physically in differing ways according to local conditions; over a 
longer period populations evolve (see evolution). Adaptation also oper-
ates at various cultural levels, through behavior and social organization.
adat. Customary law in Islamic (see islam) South-East Asia, as distinct from 
religious law, or shari’a.
Further reading: Davidson & Henley (2007).
address terms. Relationship terms used directly with their subject, to talk to 
them. May be employed more loosely than reference terms (terms used to 
talk about others), as when calling an older cousin “uncle.”
adelphic polyandry. A form of polyandry—marriage to multiple 
husbands—in which the husbands are brothers (or are regarded as such). 
From Greek, adelphi (“brothers”).
adivasi. A member of the aboriginal tribal peoples of India. From Sanskrit, 
“original inhabitant.”
Morris_c01.indd 2 Morris_c01.indd   2 12/1/2011 4:59:08 PM 12/1/2011   4:59:08 PM
adolescence. See youth.
adoption. The voluntary extension of kinship ties to people outside one’s 
immediate biological family, most often involving adults adopting children. 
It may be mainly understood as a legal commitment, a more permanent step 
than fostering.
Legal adoption derives from ancient Rome; the Romans distinguished 
between beneficial “changes” of parent and cases in which birth parents had 
died. In non-western societies the anthropologist may find such distinctions 
less useful, as a fluid range of practices and attitudes may present themselves. 
One area of interest is transnational adoption (see transnationalism), 
with issues such as questions of ethnicity and identity.
Further reading: Bowie (2004).
Adorno, Theodor (1903–69). German philosopher, influenced by marx; 
member of the Frankfurt School (see critical anthropology). He adopted 
a critical stance toward the mass media and positivism, attacking the 
“culture industry” on the grounds that it twisted art to its own repressive 
ends, and toward spurious rationalism. His works include Minima moralia 
(1974 [German 1951]), Prisms (1967 [German 1955]), and Negative 
dialectics (1973 [1966]). See also habermas.
advocacy. The practice of speaking for another (the Latin root means 
“called to [support]”). The notion of advocacy in the social sciences and 
the ethical questions surrounding it have become issues in areas such as 
applied anthropology, development, human rights, and particularly 
action anthropology.
aesthetics. A term originally taken from the Greek for “things perceptible,” 
the precise meaning of which was contested by Alexander Baumgarten and 
Immanuel Kant in the eighteenth century. Its English use encompasses both 
the theory of sense perception and the investigation of the principles of 
beauty in the arts (see art). For anthropologists, key questions include what 
criteria are valid in the study of art of non-western cultures (see culture), 
what the function of art is, and what it may mean.
Further reading: Weiner (1994).
affect. Generally used as a verb; as a noun, “affect” refers in psychology to 
emotional response to stimuli or thoughts. Its consideration is an issue in 
anthropology of the body.
affiliation. Used generally to describe adoption (literally or metaphori-
cally), affiliation also has two meanings in anthropology. It describes 
the relationship of a child to its parents, and hence to lines of descent 
Morris_c01.indd 3 Morris_c01.indd   3 12/1/2011 4:59:08 PM 12/1/2011   4:59:08 PM
Page 4


A
AAA. See american anthropological association.
Aboriginal. The earliest known occupant (or feature) of a region; often 
(capitalized) specifying indigenous peoples of Australia. “Aborigine” is 
often considered offensive. Early anthropologists and sociologists such as 
radcliffe-brown and durkheim were greatly interested in Australian 
Aboriginal societies. These have been examined by specialists such as 
B. Spencer and F. J. Gillen; and, more recently, by such writers as Howard 
Morphy and Ian Keen.
Abu Sunbul (Egypt). See burckhardt.
acculturation. A process by which one group of people’s identity is 
modified by meeting another: one culture introduces elements that are 
accepted or resisted by the other, leading to the weaker group remaining 
partially autonomous, the assimilation of the weaker group into the 
stronger unit, or occasionally a merged culture. Members of the dominant 
culture may be physically present or act on the other remotely. Even when 
acculturated, the weaker group may not totally assimilate. In general use, 
acculturation and assimilation may be used synonymously. See also 
syncretism, the adoption of elements of one religion into another.
acephalous. Having no head; of a state or people, having no formal leader 
(as in foraging cultures—see hunter-gatherer).
achievement/ascription. A distinction made by parsons, one of five such 
pattern variables, or sets of alternative social strategies. Achieved status 
derives from competition with one’s peers; ascribed status comes through 
Morris_c01.indd 1 Morris_c01.indd   1 12/1/2011 4:59:07 PM 12/1/2011   4:59:07 PM
one’s birth. While it may be claimed that “traditional” (see tradition) 
societies ascribe status and “modern” societies favor achievement, certain 
areas (e.g. gender roles) may be more complicated.
acquisition. See language acquisition.
act. To perform a deed, or the deed itself. The definition of an “act” has been 
much discussed in sociology. See also agency (the ability to act), broker, 
collective conscience, role, speech act. In common use, of course, 
“acting” often implies theatrical role-playing.
Further reading: Hastrup (2004).
action anthropology. A form of applied anthropology in which the 
anthropologist works for the interests of a minority culture that is in 
 difficulty of some kind, facilitating that culture’s decisions. Pioneered by 
Sol tax from the 1930s onward.
actor/network theory (ANT). A sociological approach associated with 
Bruno Latour, John Law, Michel Callon, and others that has influenced 
several social sciences. It stresses the performative nature of networks, 
and, controversially, can be said to ascribe agency, the ability to act, to non-
human elements of a network—people and the things they use interact to 
perpetuate the network. Critics have argued that ANT underplays the real 
political and power relations involved in its area of study. ANT is a branch 
of science and technology studies.
Further reading: Latour (2005).
adaptation. In biology and anthropology, the response of a population or 
individual to new environmental (see environment) factors. Individuals 
develop physically in differing ways according to local conditions; over a 
longer period populations evolve (see evolution). Adaptation also oper-
ates at various cultural levels, through behavior and social organization.
adat. Customary law in Islamic (see islam) South-East Asia, as distinct from 
religious law, or shari’a.
Further reading: Davidson & Henley (2007).
address terms. Relationship terms used directly with their subject, to talk to 
them. May be employed more loosely than reference terms (terms used to 
talk about others), as when calling an older cousin “uncle.”
adelphic polyandry. A form of polyandry—marriage to multiple 
husbands—in which the husbands are brothers (or are regarded as such). 
From Greek, adelphi (“brothers”).
adivasi. A member of the aboriginal tribal peoples of India. From Sanskrit, 
“original inhabitant.”
Morris_c01.indd 2 Morris_c01.indd   2 12/1/2011 4:59:08 PM 12/1/2011   4:59:08 PM
adolescence. See youth.
adoption. The voluntary extension of kinship ties to people outside one’s 
immediate biological family, most often involving adults adopting children. 
It may be mainly understood as a legal commitment, a more permanent step 
than fostering.
Legal adoption derives from ancient Rome; the Romans distinguished 
between beneficial “changes” of parent and cases in which birth parents had 
died. In non-western societies the anthropologist may find such distinctions 
less useful, as a fluid range of practices and attitudes may present themselves. 
One area of interest is transnational adoption (see transnationalism), 
with issues such as questions of ethnicity and identity.
Further reading: Bowie (2004).
Adorno, Theodor (1903–69). German philosopher, influenced by marx; 
member of the Frankfurt School (see critical anthropology). He adopted 
a critical stance toward the mass media and positivism, attacking the 
“culture industry” on the grounds that it twisted art to its own repressive 
ends, and toward spurious rationalism. His works include Minima moralia 
(1974 [German 1951]), Prisms (1967 [German 1955]), and Negative 
dialectics (1973 [1966]). See also habermas.
advocacy. The practice of speaking for another (the Latin root means 
“called to [support]”). The notion of advocacy in the social sciences and 
the ethical questions surrounding it have become issues in areas such as 
applied anthropology, development, human rights, and particularly 
action anthropology.
aesthetics. A term originally taken from the Greek for “things perceptible,” 
the precise meaning of which was contested by Alexander Baumgarten and 
Immanuel Kant in the eighteenth century. Its English use encompasses both 
the theory of sense perception and the investigation of the principles of 
beauty in the arts (see art). For anthropologists, key questions include what 
criteria are valid in the study of art of non-western cultures (see culture), 
what the function of art is, and what it may mean.
Further reading: Weiner (1994).
affect. Generally used as a verb; as a noun, “affect” refers in psychology to 
emotional response to stimuli or thoughts. Its consideration is an issue in 
anthropology of the body.
affiliation. Used generally to describe adoption (literally or metaphori-
cally), affiliation also has two meanings in anthropology. It describes 
the relationship of a child to its parents, and hence to lines of descent 
Morris_c01.indd 3 Morris_c01.indd   3 12/1/2011 4:59:08 PM 12/1/2011   4:59:08 PM
(the relationship to the parent alone being known as filiation), and also 
covers voluntary social association between wider groups.
affine. See affinity.
affinity. kinship held through marriage (e.g. “in-laws”) as opposed to 
birth (consanguinity). Those connected by affinity are termed “affines.”
affluent society. See original affluent society.
afterology. A term adopted by Marshall D. sahlins (from a phrase by 
Jacqueline Mraz) to describe disparagingly post-modernism, post-
structuralism, and similar phenomena.
Further reading: Sahlins (1999).
Agamben, Giorgio (1942–). See sovereignty.
agamy. A marriage custom whereby people are free to marry members of 
their own group as well as members of another group. Compare the narrower 
expectations involved in endogamy and exogamy.
age-class system or age system. A means of organizing men (seldom women) 
into groups based on common age and role (“age sets” passing through the 
same “age grades” together), typically in East Africa or the Americas. The 
most common distinction is the separation of young men from their elders.
ageing. The last stages of physical maturity; later adulthood. A folksy image 
of the kinds of peoples studied by anthropologists would involve revered 
elders dispensing wisdom to the young, but this is not necessarily accurate. 
In some ways people are just as constrained by societal expectations (and 
factors such as gender) in old age as in youth. It is certainly true, however, 
that in industrialized societies people quite often regard the elderly as a bur-
den, requiring expensive medical and personal care. A further aspect of 
 ageing is the occasional emergence of a gerontocracy.
Further reading: Myerhoff (1978).
agency. The ability of an individual (“agent”) or group to act of their 
own volition, without constraint by structure. Certain schools of social 
thought stress agency (see political anthropology). Contrast cultural 
determinism.
Further reading: Wisnewski (2008).
aggression. Of particular interest in psychology (see psychological 
anthropology). Anthropologists have uncovered a wide range of aggressive 
practice, including conventions regarding who is likely to be a victim, and 
under what circumstances. Aggression may result in full-blown violence or 
Morris_c01.indd 4 Morris_c01.indd   4 12/1/2011 4:59:08 PM 12/1/2011   4:59:08 PM
Page 5


A
AAA. See american anthropological association.
Aboriginal. The earliest known occupant (or feature) of a region; often 
(capitalized) specifying indigenous peoples of Australia. “Aborigine” is 
often considered offensive. Early anthropologists and sociologists such as 
radcliffe-brown and durkheim were greatly interested in Australian 
Aboriginal societies. These have been examined by specialists such as 
B. Spencer and F. J. Gillen; and, more recently, by such writers as Howard 
Morphy and Ian Keen.
Abu Sunbul (Egypt). See burckhardt.
acculturation. A process by which one group of people’s identity is 
modified by meeting another: one culture introduces elements that are 
accepted or resisted by the other, leading to the weaker group remaining 
partially autonomous, the assimilation of the weaker group into the 
stronger unit, or occasionally a merged culture. Members of the dominant 
culture may be physically present or act on the other remotely. Even when 
acculturated, the weaker group may not totally assimilate. In general use, 
acculturation and assimilation may be used synonymously. See also 
syncretism, the adoption of elements of one religion into another.
acephalous. Having no head; of a state or people, having no formal leader 
(as in foraging cultures—see hunter-gatherer).
achievement/ascription. A distinction made by parsons, one of five such 
pattern variables, or sets of alternative social strategies. Achieved status 
derives from competition with one’s peers; ascribed status comes through 
Morris_c01.indd 1 Morris_c01.indd   1 12/1/2011 4:59:07 PM 12/1/2011   4:59:07 PM
one’s birth. While it may be claimed that “traditional” (see tradition) 
societies ascribe status and “modern” societies favor achievement, certain 
areas (e.g. gender roles) may be more complicated.
acquisition. See language acquisition.
act. To perform a deed, or the deed itself. The definition of an “act” has been 
much discussed in sociology. See also agency (the ability to act), broker, 
collective conscience, role, speech act. In common use, of course, 
“acting” often implies theatrical role-playing.
Further reading: Hastrup (2004).
action anthropology. A form of applied anthropology in which the 
anthropologist works for the interests of a minority culture that is in 
 difficulty of some kind, facilitating that culture’s decisions. Pioneered by 
Sol tax from the 1930s onward.
actor/network theory (ANT). A sociological approach associated with 
Bruno Latour, John Law, Michel Callon, and others that has influenced 
several social sciences. It stresses the performative nature of networks, 
and, controversially, can be said to ascribe agency, the ability to act, to non-
human elements of a network—people and the things they use interact to 
perpetuate the network. Critics have argued that ANT underplays the real 
political and power relations involved in its area of study. ANT is a branch 
of science and technology studies.
Further reading: Latour (2005).
adaptation. In biology and anthropology, the response of a population or 
individual to new environmental (see environment) factors. Individuals 
develop physically in differing ways according to local conditions; over a 
longer period populations evolve (see evolution). Adaptation also oper-
ates at various cultural levels, through behavior and social organization.
adat. Customary law in Islamic (see islam) South-East Asia, as distinct from 
religious law, or shari’a.
Further reading: Davidson & Henley (2007).
address terms. Relationship terms used directly with their subject, to talk to 
them. May be employed more loosely than reference terms (terms used to 
talk about others), as when calling an older cousin “uncle.”
adelphic polyandry. A form of polyandry—marriage to multiple 
husbands—in which the husbands are brothers (or are regarded as such). 
From Greek, adelphi (“brothers”).
adivasi. A member of the aboriginal tribal peoples of India. From Sanskrit, 
“original inhabitant.”
Morris_c01.indd 2 Morris_c01.indd   2 12/1/2011 4:59:08 PM 12/1/2011   4:59:08 PM
adolescence. See youth.
adoption. The voluntary extension of kinship ties to people outside one’s 
immediate biological family, most often involving adults adopting children. 
It may be mainly understood as a legal commitment, a more permanent step 
than fostering.
Legal adoption derives from ancient Rome; the Romans distinguished 
between beneficial “changes” of parent and cases in which birth parents had 
died. In non-western societies the anthropologist may find such distinctions 
less useful, as a fluid range of practices and attitudes may present themselves. 
One area of interest is transnational adoption (see transnationalism), 
with issues such as questions of ethnicity and identity.
Further reading: Bowie (2004).
Adorno, Theodor (1903–69). German philosopher, influenced by marx; 
member of the Frankfurt School (see critical anthropology). He adopted 
a critical stance toward the mass media and positivism, attacking the 
“culture industry” on the grounds that it twisted art to its own repressive 
ends, and toward spurious rationalism. His works include Minima moralia 
(1974 [German 1951]), Prisms (1967 [German 1955]), and Negative 
dialectics (1973 [1966]). See also habermas.
advocacy. The practice of speaking for another (the Latin root means 
“called to [support]”). The notion of advocacy in the social sciences and 
the ethical questions surrounding it have become issues in areas such as 
applied anthropology, development, human rights, and particularly 
action anthropology.
aesthetics. A term originally taken from the Greek for “things perceptible,” 
the precise meaning of which was contested by Alexander Baumgarten and 
Immanuel Kant in the eighteenth century. Its English use encompasses both 
the theory of sense perception and the investigation of the principles of 
beauty in the arts (see art). For anthropologists, key questions include what 
criteria are valid in the study of art of non-western cultures (see culture), 
what the function of art is, and what it may mean.
Further reading: Weiner (1994).
affect. Generally used as a verb; as a noun, “affect” refers in psychology to 
emotional response to stimuli or thoughts. Its consideration is an issue in 
anthropology of the body.
affiliation. Used generally to describe adoption (literally or metaphori-
cally), affiliation also has two meanings in anthropology. It describes 
the relationship of a child to its parents, and hence to lines of descent 
Morris_c01.indd 3 Morris_c01.indd   3 12/1/2011 4:59:08 PM 12/1/2011   4:59:08 PM
(the relationship to the parent alone being known as filiation), and also 
covers voluntary social association between wider groups.
affine. See affinity.
affinity. kinship held through marriage (e.g. “in-laws”) as opposed to 
birth (consanguinity). Those connected by affinity are termed “affines.”
affluent society. See original affluent society.
afterology. A term adopted by Marshall D. sahlins (from a phrase by 
Jacqueline Mraz) to describe disparagingly post-modernism, post-
structuralism, and similar phenomena.
Further reading: Sahlins (1999).
Agamben, Giorgio (1942–). See sovereignty.
agamy. A marriage custom whereby people are free to marry members of 
their own group as well as members of another group. Compare the narrower 
expectations involved in endogamy and exogamy.
age-class system or age system. A means of organizing men (seldom women) 
into groups based on common age and role (“age sets” passing through the 
same “age grades” together), typically in East Africa or the Americas. The 
most common distinction is the separation of young men from their elders.
ageing. The last stages of physical maturity; later adulthood. A folksy image 
of the kinds of peoples studied by anthropologists would involve revered 
elders dispensing wisdom to the young, but this is not necessarily accurate. 
In some ways people are just as constrained by societal expectations (and 
factors such as gender) in old age as in youth. It is certainly true, however, 
that in industrialized societies people quite often regard the elderly as a bur-
den, requiring expensive medical and personal care. A further aspect of 
 ageing is the occasional emergence of a gerontocracy.
Further reading: Myerhoff (1978).
agency. The ability of an individual (“agent”) or group to act of their 
own volition, without constraint by structure. Certain schools of social 
thought stress agency (see political anthropology). Contrast cultural 
determinism.
Further reading: Wisnewski (2008).
aggression. Of particular interest in psychology (see psychological 
anthropology). Anthropologists have uncovered a wide range of aggressive 
practice, including conventions regarding who is likely to be a victim, and 
under what circumstances. Aggression may result in full-blown violence or 
Morris_c01.indd 4 Morris_c01.indd   4 12/1/2011 4:59:08 PM 12/1/2011   4:59:08 PM
the capitulation (or flight) of the target. It is often studied in relation to 
young males (see youth), in relation to children, and in relation to situations 
that provoke aggression.
A lot of work has been done on aggressive behavior among other animals, 
for instance primates. The theories of the Austrian ethologist Konrad 
Lorenz, who regarded aggression as inbuilt, were popular in the 1960s but 
have latterly been rejected in favor of more culturally nuanced explanations.
agnate. See agnatic.
agnatic. In kinship, a term for relation by descent from the father’s side of 
the family; a person so related is an “agnate.” The mother’s-side equivalent 
terms are enate and uterine; see also cognatic, patrilineality.
agricultural involution. See involution.
agriculture. Literally, the cultivation of the soil (for food and so on), but 
usually understood to include wider practices such as raising livestock. 
Studied particularly by anthropologists interested in development issues 
(e.g. rural politics and economics) but issues also include large-scale land 
use in technologically sophisticated ways.
agronomy. The study of land management, rural economy and related areas.
AIDS. Acquired immune deficiency syndrome, which develops from the 
human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) to allow infection, was first identified 
around 1982 and has had major impacts around the world, particularly in 
sub-Saharan Africa, where mortality rates remain high. As the pandemic 
developed, judgmental attitudes toward some early victims hampered efforts 
to treat and prevent it. See also disease, risk, sex.
Further reading: ten Brummelhuis & Herdt (1995); Fassin (2007).
alcheringa. See dreaming.
alcohol. The general name for a number of chemical compounds with 
assorted uses (for example ethanol) produced naturally or artificially. 
Ethanol is the basis of “alcoholic” drinks. Naturally fermented drinks have 
a long history of recreational use, use in ritual, and use other contexts, in 
many cultures, although not everywhere: for instance, they are forbidden 
according to Islamic (see islam) and Sikh custom. Even in the US, 
Prohibition in the 1920s criminalized alcohol.
Alcohol works on the brain to alter mood and lower inhibitions, which 
can create social problems (such as crime and violence), illness, and 
long-term dependency. Many social scientists have investigated methods of 
treatment and rehabilitation for alcohol abusers.
Further reading: Wilson (2005).
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