Important Terminologies: E - G | Anthropology Optional for UPSC PDF Download

 Page 1


E
e. A comparative kinship abbreviation to denote that an individual is 
“elder”; that is, older than ego. For example, an older brother might be “eB. ”
E or Sp. In relationship terminology, the abbreviation for “spouse” 
(from French, “épouse”).
Earth Summit (UN). See sustainable development.
EASA. See european association of social anthropologists.
École des hautes études en sciences sociales. See ehess.
ecological anthropology. A specialism that focuses on the mutual influence 
of humans on their environment and vice versa. A growing area since the 
mid twentieth century, ecological anthropology, initially called “cultural 
ecology,” encompasses writers such as Julian steward and Roy Rappaport, 
and a variety of strands, from its influence on cultural materialism 
to historical, taxonomical, and other approaches. See also ecosystem, 
environmentalism.
Further reading: Moran (2006); Rappaport (2000).
ecology. The study of the relationship between organisms and their 
environment. The term was coined by Ernst Haeckel in 1866 (from Greek, 
“study of the dwelling”). Ecological concerns are of particular interest to 
anthropologists for reasons including the human effect on environments—
in industries such as logging, for instance in amazonia and southeast 
asia—and because of wider moral and political implications, for instance 
concerning the treatment of indigenous peoples.
Morris_c05.indd 76 Morris_c05.indd   76 12/1/2011 4:20:10 PM 12/1/2011   4:20:10 PM
Page 2


E
e. A comparative kinship abbreviation to denote that an individual is 
“elder”; that is, older than ego. For example, an older brother might be “eB. ”
E or Sp. In relationship terminology, the abbreviation for “spouse” 
(from French, “épouse”).
Earth Summit (UN). See sustainable development.
EASA. See european association of social anthropologists.
École des hautes études en sciences sociales. See ehess.
ecological anthropology. A specialism that focuses on the mutual influence 
of humans on their environment and vice versa. A growing area since the 
mid twentieth century, ecological anthropology, initially called “cultural 
ecology,” encompasses writers such as Julian steward and Roy Rappaport, 
and a variety of strands, from its influence on cultural materialism 
to historical, taxonomical, and other approaches. See also ecosystem, 
environmentalism.
Further reading: Moran (2006); Rappaport (2000).
ecology. The study of the relationship between organisms and their 
environment. The term was coined by Ernst Haeckel in 1866 (from Greek, 
“study of the dwelling”). Ecological concerns are of particular interest to 
anthropologists for reasons including the human effect on environments—
in industries such as logging, for instance in amazonia and southeast 
asia—and because of wider moral and political implications, for instance 
concerning the treatment of indigenous peoples.
Morris_c05.indd 76 Morris_c05.indd   76 12/1/2011 4:20:10 PM 12/1/2011   4:20:10 PM
economic anthropology. Economic anthropology, building on antecedants 
such as the work of mauss on exchange, developed as a separate field from 
the mid twentieth century, and has expanded classical economic theory in 
several ways. While taking account of the traditional model of rational 
market-based activity (see e.g. economic man), anthropologists have 
widened the focus of the subject to include not just money transactions but 
also barter, gift exchange, and so on. They have also specialized in such 
areas as the power relations implicit in economic ties (sometimes adapting 
marxist theory), the social contexts of economic change (following the work 
of polanyi), and the other ways in which people relate to each other through 
commodities and services (see cultural economy). They recognize the ways 
in which economic factors moderate daily life, and the methods by which 
people can provide for themselves—from subsistence-level agriculture to 
raising cash crops, undertaking work for others, or a combination of means.
Recently, there has been some interest in the economic impacts of globali-
zation (e.g. on migrating workers), the fate of citizens after  socialism, and 
the events leading up to the worldwide financial crisis (“credit crunch”). See 
also capitalism, commodity fetishism,  conspicuous consumption, con-
sumption, formalist/substantivist debate, hunter-gatherer, industrial 
society, informal economy, potlatch,  production.
Further reading: Polanyi (2001); Carrier (2005); Gudeman (2009); Hann & Hart (2011).
Figure 7 Economic anthropology. A vegetable stall in Ngongoro village, Uluguru 
mountains, Tanzania; its owner also sells gold and rubies. Photo copyright: 
N. Beckmann.
Morris_c05.indd 77 Morris_c05.indd   77 12/1/2011 4:20:11 PM 12/1/2011   4:20:11 PM
Page 3


E
e. A comparative kinship abbreviation to denote that an individual is 
“elder”; that is, older than ego. For example, an older brother might be “eB. ”
E or Sp. In relationship terminology, the abbreviation for “spouse” 
(from French, “épouse”).
Earth Summit (UN). See sustainable development.
EASA. See european association of social anthropologists.
École des hautes études en sciences sociales. See ehess.
ecological anthropology. A specialism that focuses on the mutual influence 
of humans on their environment and vice versa. A growing area since the 
mid twentieth century, ecological anthropology, initially called “cultural 
ecology,” encompasses writers such as Julian steward and Roy Rappaport, 
and a variety of strands, from its influence on cultural materialism 
to historical, taxonomical, and other approaches. See also ecosystem, 
environmentalism.
Further reading: Moran (2006); Rappaport (2000).
ecology. The study of the relationship between organisms and their 
environment. The term was coined by Ernst Haeckel in 1866 (from Greek, 
“study of the dwelling”). Ecological concerns are of particular interest to 
anthropologists for reasons including the human effect on environments—
in industries such as logging, for instance in amazonia and southeast 
asia—and because of wider moral and political implications, for instance 
concerning the treatment of indigenous peoples.
Morris_c05.indd 76 Morris_c05.indd   76 12/1/2011 4:20:10 PM 12/1/2011   4:20:10 PM
economic anthropology. Economic anthropology, building on antecedants 
such as the work of mauss on exchange, developed as a separate field from 
the mid twentieth century, and has expanded classical economic theory in 
several ways. While taking account of the traditional model of rational 
market-based activity (see e.g. economic man), anthropologists have 
widened the focus of the subject to include not just money transactions but 
also barter, gift exchange, and so on. They have also specialized in such 
areas as the power relations implicit in economic ties (sometimes adapting 
marxist theory), the social contexts of economic change (following the work 
of polanyi), and the other ways in which people relate to each other through 
commodities and services (see cultural economy). They recognize the ways 
in which economic factors moderate daily life, and the methods by which 
people can provide for themselves—from subsistence-level agriculture to 
raising cash crops, undertaking work for others, or a combination of means.
Recently, there has been some interest in the economic impacts of globali-
zation (e.g. on migrating workers), the fate of citizens after  socialism, and 
the events leading up to the worldwide financial crisis (“credit crunch”). See 
also capitalism, commodity fetishism,  conspicuous consumption, con-
sumption, formalist/substantivist debate, hunter-gatherer, industrial 
society, informal economy, potlatch,  production.
Further reading: Polanyi (2001); Carrier (2005); Gudeman (2009); Hann & Hart (2011).
Figure 7 Economic anthropology. A vegetable stall in Ngongoro village, Uluguru 
mountains, Tanzania; its owner also sells gold and rubies. Photo copyright: 
N. Beckmann.
Morris_c05.indd 77 Morris_c05.indd   77 12/1/2011 4:20:11 PM 12/1/2011   4:20:11 PM
economic man. An ideal individual who, for the purposes of economic 
analysis, is assumed to behave in a perfectly rational manner, so as to 
maximize his/her own returns. Sometimes referred to by the Latin, “Homo 
economicus.” malinowski, in Argonauts, refers to the more obscure 
equivalent belief in “primitive economic man.”
Further reading: Malinowski (2002).
ecosystem. A biological network comprising all the living organisms 
(including humans) in a given environment, which exist in a state of 
interaction between themselves and with that environment; the dynamic 
relationships involved include energy flow and material exchange 
between these elements in a cyclical manner. Of interest in ecological 
anthropology.
education. The process by which learning is achieved, either with children 
and young people or, in some cases, adults. The modern conception of a 
formal school system masks a cultural and historical reality: for much of 
humanity, processes of socialization and/or enculturation have usually 
taken place in other settings, often through means such as learning at home 
(and while performing work of some kind), through apprenticeship, and so 
on. In whatever setting, such formal education as exists is reinforced by (and 
reinforces) the “lessons” of the wider culture.
Formal education has historically been associated with developing ethics 
and spiritual values; it has also been used to promote practical skills and, 
latterly, economic growth. In this regard, education mirrors wider cultural 
concerns. The conception of education as a process residing in a system of 
schools and colleges open—even compulsorily—to all has developed in 
industrial society (e.g. Europe, Japan, the US) only in the last few 
centuries; but it is a legacy of far more restrictive institutions generally 
available only to rich males. This bureaucratized form of education was 
exported by colonialism to many parts of the world; it has benefitted 
millions of people, but may nevertheless thus be viewed as a vehicle of 
political power. Such issues, including what the educator does in terms of 
endorsing the status quo (or even the state), are of great interest to thinkers 
such as bourdieu.
Further reading: Bourdieu & Passeron (1990); Spindler & Spindler (2000).
egalitarianism. The doctrine of social and economic (and so on) equality of 
all humankind. In western society it offered a radical alternative to existing 
power structures in—for example—France and the US from the late 
 eighteenth century onward. The idea of equality continues to play a large 
part in political rhetoric in some cultures. Anthropologists have studied 
 non-western societies that were once assumed to be “naturally”  egalitarian 
Morris_c05.indd 78 Morris_c05.indd   78 12/1/2011 4:20:11 PM 12/1/2011   4:20:11 PM
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E
e. A comparative kinship abbreviation to denote that an individual is 
“elder”; that is, older than ego. For example, an older brother might be “eB. ”
E or Sp. In relationship terminology, the abbreviation for “spouse” 
(from French, “épouse”).
Earth Summit (UN). See sustainable development.
EASA. See european association of social anthropologists.
École des hautes études en sciences sociales. See ehess.
ecological anthropology. A specialism that focuses on the mutual influence 
of humans on their environment and vice versa. A growing area since the 
mid twentieth century, ecological anthropology, initially called “cultural 
ecology,” encompasses writers such as Julian steward and Roy Rappaport, 
and a variety of strands, from its influence on cultural materialism 
to historical, taxonomical, and other approaches. See also ecosystem, 
environmentalism.
Further reading: Moran (2006); Rappaport (2000).
ecology. The study of the relationship between organisms and their 
environment. The term was coined by Ernst Haeckel in 1866 (from Greek, 
“study of the dwelling”). Ecological concerns are of particular interest to 
anthropologists for reasons including the human effect on environments—
in industries such as logging, for instance in amazonia and southeast 
asia—and because of wider moral and political implications, for instance 
concerning the treatment of indigenous peoples.
Morris_c05.indd 76 Morris_c05.indd   76 12/1/2011 4:20:10 PM 12/1/2011   4:20:10 PM
economic anthropology. Economic anthropology, building on antecedants 
such as the work of mauss on exchange, developed as a separate field from 
the mid twentieth century, and has expanded classical economic theory in 
several ways. While taking account of the traditional model of rational 
market-based activity (see e.g. economic man), anthropologists have 
widened the focus of the subject to include not just money transactions but 
also barter, gift exchange, and so on. They have also specialized in such 
areas as the power relations implicit in economic ties (sometimes adapting 
marxist theory), the social contexts of economic change (following the work 
of polanyi), and the other ways in which people relate to each other through 
commodities and services (see cultural economy). They recognize the ways 
in which economic factors moderate daily life, and the methods by which 
people can provide for themselves—from subsistence-level agriculture to 
raising cash crops, undertaking work for others, or a combination of means.
Recently, there has been some interest in the economic impacts of globali-
zation (e.g. on migrating workers), the fate of citizens after  socialism, and 
the events leading up to the worldwide financial crisis (“credit crunch”). See 
also capitalism, commodity fetishism,  conspicuous consumption, con-
sumption, formalist/substantivist debate, hunter-gatherer, industrial 
society, informal economy, potlatch,  production.
Further reading: Polanyi (2001); Carrier (2005); Gudeman (2009); Hann & Hart (2011).
Figure 7 Economic anthropology. A vegetable stall in Ngongoro village, Uluguru 
mountains, Tanzania; its owner also sells gold and rubies. Photo copyright: 
N. Beckmann.
Morris_c05.indd 77 Morris_c05.indd   77 12/1/2011 4:20:11 PM 12/1/2011   4:20:11 PM
economic man. An ideal individual who, for the purposes of economic 
analysis, is assumed to behave in a perfectly rational manner, so as to 
maximize his/her own returns. Sometimes referred to by the Latin, “Homo 
economicus.” malinowski, in Argonauts, refers to the more obscure 
equivalent belief in “primitive economic man.”
Further reading: Malinowski (2002).
ecosystem. A biological network comprising all the living organisms 
(including humans) in a given environment, which exist in a state of 
interaction between themselves and with that environment; the dynamic 
relationships involved include energy flow and material exchange 
between these elements in a cyclical manner. Of interest in ecological 
anthropology.
education. The process by which learning is achieved, either with children 
and young people or, in some cases, adults. The modern conception of a 
formal school system masks a cultural and historical reality: for much of 
humanity, processes of socialization and/or enculturation have usually 
taken place in other settings, often through means such as learning at home 
(and while performing work of some kind), through apprenticeship, and so 
on. In whatever setting, such formal education as exists is reinforced by (and 
reinforces) the “lessons” of the wider culture.
Formal education has historically been associated with developing ethics 
and spiritual values; it has also been used to promote practical skills and, 
latterly, economic growth. In this regard, education mirrors wider cultural 
concerns. The conception of education as a process residing in a system of 
schools and colleges open—even compulsorily—to all has developed in 
industrial society (e.g. Europe, Japan, the US) only in the last few 
centuries; but it is a legacy of far more restrictive institutions generally 
available only to rich males. This bureaucratized form of education was 
exported by colonialism to many parts of the world; it has benefitted 
millions of people, but may nevertheless thus be viewed as a vehicle of 
political power. Such issues, including what the educator does in terms of 
endorsing the status quo (or even the state), are of great interest to thinkers 
such as bourdieu.
Further reading: Bourdieu & Passeron (1990); Spindler & Spindler (2000).
egalitarianism. The doctrine of social and economic (and so on) equality of 
all humankind. In western society it offered a radical alternative to existing 
power structures in—for example—France and the US from the late 
 eighteenth century onward. The idea of equality continues to play a large 
part in political rhetoric in some cultures. Anthropologists have studied 
 non-western societies that were once assumed to be “naturally”  egalitarian 
Morris_c05.indd 78 Morris_c05.indd   78 12/1/2011 4:20:11 PM 12/1/2011   4:20:11 PM
and pointed out contradictions in this assumption; for example, in the treat-
ment of women. See inequality.
Ego. In relationship terminology and kinship, the person at the centre 
of the system, the “one” (real or posited) from whom other relations are 
described.
EHESS (École des hautes études en sciences sociales). Large French 
government-backed research organization (http://www.ehess.fr/fr) with 
many branches, some run in conjunction with the cnrs. Established (from 
an earlier form) in 1975. See also french anthropology.
eidos. In philosophy, the term for a Platonic ideal form. In anthropology, 
used by Gregory Bateson to describe the cognitive character (see cognition) 
of a given social group and thus its culture. Also taken up by the sociologist 
Charles Madge and others. See also ethos.
Further reading: Bateson (1958).
elder. A high-ranking member of a tribe or other community (for instance 
a religion) who has senior status or authority based at least partly on 
advanced age. Especially important where age-class systems are found. 
The term is often used in American English as a general synonym for “older 
person” (“elder care in the twenty-first century”). See also gerontocracy.
elementary family. Synonymous with nuclear family.
Figure 8 Elder. Nadine Beckmann accompanies her research assistant, Aysha, to 
meet the latter’s prospective grandmother-in-law, Mwanasalehe. Photo copyright: 
N. Beckmann.
Morris_c05.indd 79 Morris_c05.indd   79 12/1/2011 4:20:11 PM 12/1/2011   4:20:11 PM
Page 5


E
e. A comparative kinship abbreviation to denote that an individual is 
“elder”; that is, older than ego. For example, an older brother might be “eB. ”
E or Sp. In relationship terminology, the abbreviation for “spouse” 
(from French, “épouse”).
Earth Summit (UN). See sustainable development.
EASA. See european association of social anthropologists.
École des hautes études en sciences sociales. See ehess.
ecological anthropology. A specialism that focuses on the mutual influence 
of humans on their environment and vice versa. A growing area since the 
mid twentieth century, ecological anthropology, initially called “cultural 
ecology,” encompasses writers such as Julian steward and Roy Rappaport, 
and a variety of strands, from its influence on cultural materialism 
to historical, taxonomical, and other approaches. See also ecosystem, 
environmentalism.
Further reading: Moran (2006); Rappaport (2000).
ecology. The study of the relationship between organisms and their 
environment. The term was coined by Ernst Haeckel in 1866 (from Greek, 
“study of the dwelling”). Ecological concerns are of particular interest to 
anthropologists for reasons including the human effect on environments—
in industries such as logging, for instance in amazonia and southeast 
asia—and because of wider moral and political implications, for instance 
concerning the treatment of indigenous peoples.
Morris_c05.indd 76 Morris_c05.indd   76 12/1/2011 4:20:10 PM 12/1/2011   4:20:10 PM
economic anthropology. Economic anthropology, building on antecedants 
such as the work of mauss on exchange, developed as a separate field from 
the mid twentieth century, and has expanded classical economic theory in 
several ways. While taking account of the traditional model of rational 
market-based activity (see e.g. economic man), anthropologists have 
widened the focus of the subject to include not just money transactions but 
also barter, gift exchange, and so on. They have also specialized in such 
areas as the power relations implicit in economic ties (sometimes adapting 
marxist theory), the social contexts of economic change (following the work 
of polanyi), and the other ways in which people relate to each other through 
commodities and services (see cultural economy). They recognize the ways 
in which economic factors moderate daily life, and the methods by which 
people can provide for themselves—from subsistence-level agriculture to 
raising cash crops, undertaking work for others, or a combination of means.
Recently, there has been some interest in the economic impacts of globali-
zation (e.g. on migrating workers), the fate of citizens after  socialism, and 
the events leading up to the worldwide financial crisis (“credit crunch”). See 
also capitalism, commodity fetishism,  conspicuous consumption, con-
sumption, formalist/substantivist debate, hunter-gatherer, industrial 
society, informal economy, potlatch,  production.
Further reading: Polanyi (2001); Carrier (2005); Gudeman (2009); Hann & Hart (2011).
Figure 7 Economic anthropology. A vegetable stall in Ngongoro village, Uluguru 
mountains, Tanzania; its owner also sells gold and rubies. Photo copyright: 
N. Beckmann.
Morris_c05.indd 77 Morris_c05.indd   77 12/1/2011 4:20:11 PM 12/1/2011   4:20:11 PM
economic man. An ideal individual who, for the purposes of economic 
analysis, is assumed to behave in a perfectly rational manner, so as to 
maximize his/her own returns. Sometimes referred to by the Latin, “Homo 
economicus.” malinowski, in Argonauts, refers to the more obscure 
equivalent belief in “primitive economic man.”
Further reading: Malinowski (2002).
ecosystem. A biological network comprising all the living organisms 
(including humans) in a given environment, which exist in a state of 
interaction between themselves and with that environment; the dynamic 
relationships involved include energy flow and material exchange 
between these elements in a cyclical manner. Of interest in ecological 
anthropology.
education. The process by which learning is achieved, either with children 
and young people or, in some cases, adults. The modern conception of a 
formal school system masks a cultural and historical reality: for much of 
humanity, processes of socialization and/or enculturation have usually 
taken place in other settings, often through means such as learning at home 
(and while performing work of some kind), through apprenticeship, and so 
on. In whatever setting, such formal education as exists is reinforced by (and 
reinforces) the “lessons” of the wider culture.
Formal education has historically been associated with developing ethics 
and spiritual values; it has also been used to promote practical skills and, 
latterly, economic growth. In this regard, education mirrors wider cultural 
concerns. The conception of education as a process residing in a system of 
schools and colleges open—even compulsorily—to all has developed in 
industrial society (e.g. Europe, Japan, the US) only in the last few 
centuries; but it is a legacy of far more restrictive institutions generally 
available only to rich males. This bureaucratized form of education was 
exported by colonialism to many parts of the world; it has benefitted 
millions of people, but may nevertheless thus be viewed as a vehicle of 
political power. Such issues, including what the educator does in terms of 
endorsing the status quo (or even the state), are of great interest to thinkers 
such as bourdieu.
Further reading: Bourdieu & Passeron (1990); Spindler & Spindler (2000).
egalitarianism. The doctrine of social and economic (and so on) equality of 
all humankind. In western society it offered a radical alternative to existing 
power structures in—for example—France and the US from the late 
 eighteenth century onward. The idea of equality continues to play a large 
part in political rhetoric in some cultures. Anthropologists have studied 
 non-western societies that were once assumed to be “naturally”  egalitarian 
Morris_c05.indd 78 Morris_c05.indd   78 12/1/2011 4:20:11 PM 12/1/2011   4:20:11 PM
and pointed out contradictions in this assumption; for example, in the treat-
ment of women. See inequality.
Ego. In relationship terminology and kinship, the person at the centre 
of the system, the “one” (real or posited) from whom other relations are 
described.
EHESS (École des hautes études en sciences sociales). Large French 
government-backed research organization (http://www.ehess.fr/fr) with 
many branches, some run in conjunction with the cnrs. Established (from 
an earlier form) in 1975. See also french anthropology.
eidos. In philosophy, the term for a Platonic ideal form. In anthropology, 
used by Gregory Bateson to describe the cognitive character (see cognition) 
of a given social group and thus its culture. Also taken up by the sociologist 
Charles Madge and others. See also ethos.
Further reading: Bateson (1958).
elder. A high-ranking member of a tribe or other community (for instance 
a religion) who has senior status or authority based at least partly on 
advanced age. Especially important where age-class systems are found. 
The term is often used in American English as a general synonym for “older 
person” (“elder care in the twenty-first century”). See also gerontocracy.
elementary family. Synonymous with nuclear family.
Figure 8 Elder. Nadine Beckmann accompanies her research assistant, Aysha, to 
meet the latter’s prospective grandmother-in-law, Mwanasalehe. Photo copyright: 
N. Beckmann.
Morris_c05.indd 79 Morris_c05.indd   79 12/1/2011 4:20:11 PM 12/1/2011   4:20:11 PM
elementary structures. According to lévi-strauss, societies adhering to an 
“elementary kinship structure” define who is kin and who is an affine (see 
affinity) clearly. Only certain relatives are positively permitted as possible 
spouses. Alternatively, everyone is defined as a relative, but they are then 
divided into marriageable (see marriage) or not marriageable (see also 
moiety). By contrast, in complex structures, such as many western 
societies, other factors (such as social, economic, or romantic ones) are more 
important in partner selection and the emphasis switches to who is negatively 
forbidden as a spouse. Elementary structures are associated with direct 
exchange (or restricted exchange) and generalized exchange. See also 
crow-omaha.
Further reading: Lévi-Strauss (1969[b]).
Eliot, T. S. (1888–1965). See frazer.
elite. The elite of any society or group is that part that occupies positions 
of privilege, at the top of a hierarchy. These positions confer power 
unavailable to ordinary group members. The elite may include the rich or 
those in the upper class, business leaders, or religious leaders. Theorists 
such as Gaetano Mosca, pareto, and C. Wright Mills have analyzed elites.
Further reading: Mills (1999).
Elwin, Verrier (1902–64). See indian anthropology.
embedded. See disembedded.
emic. A term derived by Kenneth Pike in 1954 from linguistics: an emic 
representation of the ideas or actions of the members of a culture is drawn 
from the views of its own participants; an etic one is drawn from outside. 
For example, the external observer may regard certain phenomena as symp-
toms of a disease—this is an etic judgment. But the cultural group in ques-
tion may recognize other symptoms as characteristic of a particular illness 
that is not recognized elsewhere—this would be called an emic explanation.
Further reading: Headland et al. (1990).
emigration. See migration.
emotion. A strong feeling, such as love, hate, anger, or fear. Emotions are 
subjective and may be characterized (cautiously) as essentially opposed to 
rational thought, though informing both thought and action. Anthropological 
interest has challenged the notion that people experience emotions in 
the same way everywhere; to some extent, emotions may be culturally 
constructed.
Further reading: Lutz (1988); Wulff (2007).
Morris_c05.indd 80 Morris_c05.indd   80 12/1/2011 4:20:12 PM 12/1/2011   4:20:12 PM