Important Terminologies: L - Q | Anthropology Optional for UPSC PDF Download

 Page 1


L
Labov, William (1927–). See speech community, variation.
Lacan, Jacques (1901–1981). French psychoanalyst who reinterpreted freud 
in the light of structuralism. In his view, linguistic models best describe the 
unconscious. Key works include Écrits (French ed. 1966, English eds. 1977 
onward).
lacustrine. Related to lakes; usually used of plants, animals, or settlements 
on shores, but occasionally also of societies.
Lafitau, Joseph-François (1681–1746). French missionary to Canada who 
studied the Iroquois and produced an influential example of early 
 anthropology: Moeurs des sauvages amériquains (1724; Customs of the 
American Indians).
laissez-faire (economics). See social darwinism, spencer [h.].
lama. A Buddhist teacher, usually a priest, of Mongolia and Tibet; the Dalai 
Lama—the figurehead of the order—is regarded as a bodhisattva, a person 
near final enlightenment.
Lamarck, J. B. (Jean Baptiste de Monet, Chevalier de Lamarck, 1744–1829). 
French naturalist who developed an early theory of evolution (lamarck-
ianism) in such works as Philosophie zoologique (1809): in his view, 
 animals altered during their lifetime and passed new characteristics onto 
their offspring. Lamarck was an early adopter of the term “biology.”
Morris_c12.indd 145 Morris_c12.indd   145 12/1/2011 4:23:11 PM 12/1/2011   4:23:11 PM
Page 2


L
Labov, William (1927–). See speech community, variation.
Lacan, Jacques (1901–1981). French psychoanalyst who reinterpreted freud 
in the light of structuralism. In his view, linguistic models best describe the 
unconscious. Key works include Écrits (French ed. 1966, English eds. 1977 
onward).
lacustrine. Related to lakes; usually used of plants, animals, or settlements 
on shores, but occasionally also of societies.
Lafitau, Joseph-François (1681–1746). French missionary to Canada who 
studied the Iroquois and produced an influential example of early 
 anthropology: Moeurs des sauvages amériquains (1724; Customs of the 
American Indians).
laissez-faire (economics). See social darwinism, spencer [h.].
lama. A Buddhist teacher, usually a priest, of Mongolia and Tibet; the Dalai 
Lama—the figurehead of the order—is regarded as a bodhisattva, a person 
near final enlightenment.
Lamarck, J. B. (Jean Baptiste de Monet, Chevalier de Lamarck, 1744–1829). 
French naturalist who developed an early theory of evolution (lamarck-
ianism) in such works as Philosophie zoologique (1809): in his view, 
 animals altered during their lifetime and passed new characteristics onto 
their offspring. Lamarck was an early adopter of the term “biology.”
Morris_c12.indd 145 Morris_c12.indd   145 12/1/2011 4:23:11 PM 12/1/2011   4:23:11 PM
Lamarckianism or Lamarckism. An early (pre-darwin) theory of evolution 
advanced by lamarck; later modified by those who disagreed with darwin 
(“neo-Lamarckians”).
land tenure. Land tenure concerns how people relate to land they use; in 
anthropology the dichotomy of public or private ownership breaks down 
in the face of a wide variety of customary rights and obligations. These 
 concern not simply the land itself but also access to grazing or water. The 
ways in which such resources are made available may reveal underlying 
social hierarchies and structures. Changing conditions such as a new form 
of government or increased competition may bring tensions to a head. 
Anthropologists such as gluckman have done work on indigenous under-
standings of these issues in Africa.
In recent years, land tenure and resource rights have been debated in cases 
involving Australian aboriginal peoples, South American groups, and oth-
ers. In some cases anthropologists have attempted to advise or arbitrate (see 
advocacy). See also sharecropping.
Further reading: Gluckman (1972); Wilmsen (1989).
Lang, Andrew (1844–1912). Scottish classicist, poet, and writer on folk-
lore (born Selkirk; educated in Scotland and at Oxford) whose interests 
led to disputes with a number of writers on myth and religion, such as 
frazer and Max Müller. His many and varied works include Custom 
and myth (1884), The making of religion (1898), and The secret of the 
totem (1905).
language. Any kind of symbolic system of communication, frequently under-
stood as strictly meaning human speech and writing in particular but also 
encompassing sign language, codes such as Morse or semaphore, and 
 arguably animal communication behavior. By analogy it extends to such 
areas as computer coding.
Language is a fertile area for anthropologists, even at the most basic level 
(it is necessary for an ethnographer doing fieldwork to be able to speak the 
language of the culture studied). See also anthropological linguistics.
Further reading: Jourdan & Tuite (2006).
language acquisition. The study of language acquisition touches on all 
 elements that new speakers—notably, small children—must learn: syntax, 
vocabulary, and usage conventions. To acquire a language the learner 
must have access to others who use it and sufficient motivation (e.g. neces-
sity, prestige) to want to learn. In addition to the core data of what words 
are used and how, the learner picks up contextual information—when and 
how to take turns, appropriate register, and other elements that vary in 
importance according to the particular language and culture. Some 
Morris_c12.indd 146 Morris_c12.indd   146 12/1/2011 4:23:11 PM 12/1/2011   4:23:11 PM
Page 3


L
Labov, William (1927–). See speech community, variation.
Lacan, Jacques (1901–1981). French psychoanalyst who reinterpreted freud 
in the light of structuralism. In his view, linguistic models best describe the 
unconscious. Key works include Écrits (French ed. 1966, English eds. 1977 
onward).
lacustrine. Related to lakes; usually used of plants, animals, or settlements 
on shores, but occasionally also of societies.
Lafitau, Joseph-François (1681–1746). French missionary to Canada who 
studied the Iroquois and produced an influential example of early 
 anthropology: Moeurs des sauvages amériquains (1724; Customs of the 
American Indians).
laissez-faire (economics). See social darwinism, spencer [h.].
lama. A Buddhist teacher, usually a priest, of Mongolia and Tibet; the Dalai 
Lama—the figurehead of the order—is regarded as a bodhisattva, a person 
near final enlightenment.
Lamarck, J. B. (Jean Baptiste de Monet, Chevalier de Lamarck, 1744–1829). 
French naturalist who developed an early theory of evolution (lamarck-
ianism) in such works as Philosophie zoologique (1809): in his view, 
 animals altered during their lifetime and passed new characteristics onto 
their offspring. Lamarck was an early adopter of the term “biology.”
Morris_c12.indd 145 Morris_c12.indd   145 12/1/2011 4:23:11 PM 12/1/2011   4:23:11 PM
Lamarckianism or Lamarckism. An early (pre-darwin) theory of evolution 
advanced by lamarck; later modified by those who disagreed with darwin 
(“neo-Lamarckians”).
land tenure. Land tenure concerns how people relate to land they use; in 
anthropology the dichotomy of public or private ownership breaks down 
in the face of a wide variety of customary rights and obligations. These 
 concern not simply the land itself but also access to grazing or water. The 
ways in which such resources are made available may reveal underlying 
social hierarchies and structures. Changing conditions such as a new form 
of government or increased competition may bring tensions to a head. 
Anthropologists such as gluckman have done work on indigenous under-
standings of these issues in Africa.
In recent years, land tenure and resource rights have been debated in cases 
involving Australian aboriginal peoples, South American groups, and oth-
ers. In some cases anthropologists have attempted to advise or arbitrate (see 
advocacy). See also sharecropping.
Further reading: Gluckman (1972); Wilmsen (1989).
Lang, Andrew (1844–1912). Scottish classicist, poet, and writer on folk-
lore (born Selkirk; educated in Scotland and at Oxford) whose interests 
led to disputes with a number of writers on myth and religion, such as 
frazer and Max Müller. His many and varied works include Custom 
and myth (1884), The making of religion (1898), and The secret of the 
totem (1905).
language. Any kind of symbolic system of communication, frequently under-
stood as strictly meaning human speech and writing in particular but also 
encompassing sign language, codes such as Morse or semaphore, and 
 arguably animal communication behavior. By analogy it extends to such 
areas as computer coding.
Language is a fertile area for anthropologists, even at the most basic level 
(it is necessary for an ethnographer doing fieldwork to be able to speak the 
language of the culture studied). See also anthropological linguistics.
Further reading: Jourdan & Tuite (2006).
language acquisition. The study of language acquisition touches on all 
 elements that new speakers—notably, small children—must learn: syntax, 
vocabulary, and usage conventions. To acquire a language the learner 
must have access to others who use it and sufficient motivation (e.g. neces-
sity, prestige) to want to learn. In addition to the core data of what words 
are used and how, the learner picks up contextual information—when and 
how to take turns, appropriate register, and other elements that vary in 
importance according to the particular language and culture. Some 
Morris_c12.indd 146 Morris_c12.indd   146 12/1/2011 4:23:11 PM 12/1/2011   4:23:11 PM
 languages are easier to learn than others, but it has been observed that 
 children especially seem to be predisposed to certain kinds of acquisition.
language classification. Traditionally languages have often been classified by 
family—those languages assumed to share a common protolanguage 
are  grouped together (thus, proto-Indo-European is the ancestor of 
 indo-european, which encompasses English, Greek, and a number of other 
tongues). This kind of genetic classification is the domain of comparative 
linguistics.
Languages may also be grouped by shared features, which might be 
explained as the outcome of culture contact in a region or analyzed by 
language type (those that follow particular grammatical rules, for instance).
Further reading: Campbell & Poser (2008).
language death. The point at which a language becomes completely  disused 
or disappears, for instance because speakers adopt an incoming language 
instead. Extinct or dying languages may be those of minorities, and may be 
of great interest to linguists and anthropologists.
language games. The notion, associated with the later writings of wittgen-
stein, that the use of language should be regarded as similar to a group of 
games, each with its own rules and context. There are family resemblances 
between languages, but these are not sufficient to make generalizations 
about all language use. What is important is how languages are used or 
modified in practice.
Further reading: Wittgenstein (2009).
langue and parole. A linguistic distinction made by saussure: langue, or 
“language,” is the structured set of rules and conventions established com-
munally. Parole, or “speech,” is the language as it is actually used by an 
individual speaker. Saussure characterizes this as the difference between 
the “essential” and the “accessory.”
Further reading: Saussure (1983).
latent. See manifest and latent.
Latin America. The area of Southern America (including Mexico and the 
Caribbean) characterized by cultures in which there is a legacy of coloni-
alism. Such cultures commonly have Spanish or Portuguese as the domi-
nant language and have a mixed heritage of indigenous “indian” roots 
and European influences (“Latin” originally refered to the origins of west-
ern European languages). Among the anthropologists who have investigated 
diverse aspects of Latin American societies such as inequality, power, 
poverty, rural and urban ways of life, sex roles, and violence are Eric 
Wolf, Robert Redfield, and Oscar Lewis. See also catholicism, mestizo.
Morris_c12.indd 147 Morris_c12.indd   147 12/1/2011 4:23:12 PM 12/1/2011   4:23:12 PM
Page 4


L
Labov, William (1927–). See speech community, variation.
Lacan, Jacques (1901–1981). French psychoanalyst who reinterpreted freud 
in the light of structuralism. In his view, linguistic models best describe the 
unconscious. Key works include Écrits (French ed. 1966, English eds. 1977 
onward).
lacustrine. Related to lakes; usually used of plants, animals, or settlements 
on shores, but occasionally also of societies.
Lafitau, Joseph-François (1681–1746). French missionary to Canada who 
studied the Iroquois and produced an influential example of early 
 anthropology: Moeurs des sauvages amériquains (1724; Customs of the 
American Indians).
laissez-faire (economics). See social darwinism, spencer [h.].
lama. A Buddhist teacher, usually a priest, of Mongolia and Tibet; the Dalai 
Lama—the figurehead of the order—is regarded as a bodhisattva, a person 
near final enlightenment.
Lamarck, J. B. (Jean Baptiste de Monet, Chevalier de Lamarck, 1744–1829). 
French naturalist who developed an early theory of evolution (lamarck-
ianism) in such works as Philosophie zoologique (1809): in his view, 
 animals altered during their lifetime and passed new characteristics onto 
their offspring. Lamarck was an early adopter of the term “biology.”
Morris_c12.indd 145 Morris_c12.indd   145 12/1/2011 4:23:11 PM 12/1/2011   4:23:11 PM
Lamarckianism or Lamarckism. An early (pre-darwin) theory of evolution 
advanced by lamarck; later modified by those who disagreed with darwin 
(“neo-Lamarckians”).
land tenure. Land tenure concerns how people relate to land they use; in 
anthropology the dichotomy of public or private ownership breaks down 
in the face of a wide variety of customary rights and obligations. These 
 concern not simply the land itself but also access to grazing or water. The 
ways in which such resources are made available may reveal underlying 
social hierarchies and structures. Changing conditions such as a new form 
of government or increased competition may bring tensions to a head. 
Anthropologists such as gluckman have done work on indigenous under-
standings of these issues in Africa.
In recent years, land tenure and resource rights have been debated in cases 
involving Australian aboriginal peoples, South American groups, and oth-
ers. In some cases anthropologists have attempted to advise or arbitrate (see 
advocacy). See also sharecropping.
Further reading: Gluckman (1972); Wilmsen (1989).
Lang, Andrew (1844–1912). Scottish classicist, poet, and writer on folk-
lore (born Selkirk; educated in Scotland and at Oxford) whose interests 
led to disputes with a number of writers on myth and religion, such as 
frazer and Max Müller. His many and varied works include Custom 
and myth (1884), The making of religion (1898), and The secret of the 
totem (1905).
language. Any kind of symbolic system of communication, frequently under-
stood as strictly meaning human speech and writing in particular but also 
encompassing sign language, codes such as Morse or semaphore, and 
 arguably animal communication behavior. By analogy it extends to such 
areas as computer coding.
Language is a fertile area for anthropologists, even at the most basic level 
(it is necessary for an ethnographer doing fieldwork to be able to speak the 
language of the culture studied). See also anthropological linguistics.
Further reading: Jourdan & Tuite (2006).
language acquisition. The study of language acquisition touches on all 
 elements that new speakers—notably, small children—must learn: syntax, 
vocabulary, and usage conventions. To acquire a language the learner 
must have access to others who use it and sufficient motivation (e.g. neces-
sity, prestige) to want to learn. In addition to the core data of what words 
are used and how, the learner picks up contextual information—when and 
how to take turns, appropriate register, and other elements that vary in 
importance according to the particular language and culture. Some 
Morris_c12.indd 146 Morris_c12.indd   146 12/1/2011 4:23:11 PM 12/1/2011   4:23:11 PM
 languages are easier to learn than others, but it has been observed that 
 children especially seem to be predisposed to certain kinds of acquisition.
language classification. Traditionally languages have often been classified by 
family—those languages assumed to share a common protolanguage 
are  grouped together (thus, proto-Indo-European is the ancestor of 
 indo-european, which encompasses English, Greek, and a number of other 
tongues). This kind of genetic classification is the domain of comparative 
linguistics.
Languages may also be grouped by shared features, which might be 
explained as the outcome of culture contact in a region or analyzed by 
language type (those that follow particular grammatical rules, for instance).
Further reading: Campbell & Poser (2008).
language death. The point at which a language becomes completely  disused 
or disappears, for instance because speakers adopt an incoming language 
instead. Extinct or dying languages may be those of minorities, and may be 
of great interest to linguists and anthropologists.
language games. The notion, associated with the later writings of wittgen-
stein, that the use of language should be regarded as similar to a group of 
games, each with its own rules and context. There are family resemblances 
between languages, but these are not sufficient to make generalizations 
about all language use. What is important is how languages are used or 
modified in practice.
Further reading: Wittgenstein (2009).
langue and parole. A linguistic distinction made by saussure: langue, or 
“language,” is the structured set of rules and conventions established com-
munally. Parole, or “speech,” is the language as it is actually used by an 
individual speaker. Saussure characterizes this as the difference between 
the “essential” and the “accessory.”
Further reading: Saussure (1983).
latent. See manifest and latent.
Latin America. The area of Southern America (including Mexico and the 
Caribbean) characterized by cultures in which there is a legacy of coloni-
alism. Such cultures commonly have Spanish or Portuguese as the domi-
nant language and have a mixed heritage of indigenous “indian” roots 
and European influences (“Latin” originally refered to the origins of west-
ern European languages). Among the anthropologists who have investigated 
diverse aspects of Latin American societies such as inequality, power, 
poverty, rural and urban ways of life, sex roles, and violence are Eric 
Wolf, Robert Redfield, and Oscar Lewis. See also catholicism, mestizo.
Morris_c12.indd 147 Morris_c12.indd   147 12/1/2011 4:23:12 PM 12/1/2011   4:23:12 PM
law. In a narrow sense, the rules governing a community, whether derived 
from authority or custom. The anthropological study of law builds on 
foundations laid by such figures as maine (who made important comments 
on contract and status) and ethnographic descriptions from  malinowski 
of local rules. Other distinguished early work was done by gluckman and, 
later, Llewellyn and Hoebel. Around the mid twentieth century there was 
debate about the difference between measures intended to strengthen 
 cultural institutions and less codified forms of social control or sanction, 
and whether this was all “law” or only some of it was. With fresh awareness 
of what became known as legal pluralism in the colonial era, anthro-
pologists began also to study the variety of legal conventions people obey. 
Other newer forms of legal anthropology consider conflict resolution, 
resistance to law and power, and law and terrorism.
Further reading: Maine (2006); Malinowski (1926); Llewellyn & Hoebel (1941); 
Mundy (2002).
Leach, Edmund (1910–89). British anthropologist, originally an engineer. 
Captured in Burma during World War II, he worked among the peoples of 
the Kachin region. At the London School of Economics (at which he was 
reader from 1947 to 1953) and under the influence of malinowski and 
firth, he gravitated toward lévi-strauss and structuralism. He became 
professor of social anthropology at Cambridge (1972–8). His key work is 
Political systems of Highland Burma (2004 [1954])—in which he discusses 
the contrasting political approaches of GUMSA and GUMLAO—but others 
include Rethinking anthropology (1961) and Genesis as myth (1969).
Lee, Richard B. (1937–). See ethology, hunter-gatherer.
Leenhardt, Maurice (1878–1954). See french anthropology.
left. See right and left.
legal anthropology. See law.
legal pluralism. A concept in anthropology of law: what people do in settling 
matters of justice is governed not just by the formal court system (or its equiv-
alent) that nominally regulates them but also by customary practice. Thus 
the law has two (or more) potentially conflicting strands. Legal pluralism 
can also refer to the situation in areas in which there are two or more formal 
legal systems.
legend. See myth.
Leibniz, G. W. (1646–1716). See theodicy.
Leiris, Michel (1901–90). See french anthropology.
Lemkin, Raphael (1900–59). See GENOCIDE.
Morris_c12.indd 148 Morris_c12.indd   148 12/1/2011 4:23:12 PM 12/1/2011   4:23:12 PM
Page 5


L
Labov, William (1927–). See speech community, variation.
Lacan, Jacques (1901–1981). French psychoanalyst who reinterpreted freud 
in the light of structuralism. In his view, linguistic models best describe the 
unconscious. Key works include Écrits (French ed. 1966, English eds. 1977 
onward).
lacustrine. Related to lakes; usually used of plants, animals, or settlements 
on shores, but occasionally also of societies.
Lafitau, Joseph-François (1681–1746). French missionary to Canada who 
studied the Iroquois and produced an influential example of early 
 anthropology: Moeurs des sauvages amériquains (1724; Customs of the 
American Indians).
laissez-faire (economics). See social darwinism, spencer [h.].
lama. A Buddhist teacher, usually a priest, of Mongolia and Tibet; the Dalai 
Lama—the figurehead of the order—is regarded as a bodhisattva, a person 
near final enlightenment.
Lamarck, J. B. (Jean Baptiste de Monet, Chevalier de Lamarck, 1744–1829). 
French naturalist who developed an early theory of evolution (lamarck-
ianism) in such works as Philosophie zoologique (1809): in his view, 
 animals altered during their lifetime and passed new characteristics onto 
their offspring. Lamarck was an early adopter of the term “biology.”
Morris_c12.indd 145 Morris_c12.indd   145 12/1/2011 4:23:11 PM 12/1/2011   4:23:11 PM
Lamarckianism or Lamarckism. An early (pre-darwin) theory of evolution 
advanced by lamarck; later modified by those who disagreed with darwin 
(“neo-Lamarckians”).
land tenure. Land tenure concerns how people relate to land they use; in 
anthropology the dichotomy of public or private ownership breaks down 
in the face of a wide variety of customary rights and obligations. These 
 concern not simply the land itself but also access to grazing or water. The 
ways in which such resources are made available may reveal underlying 
social hierarchies and structures. Changing conditions such as a new form 
of government or increased competition may bring tensions to a head. 
Anthropologists such as gluckman have done work on indigenous under-
standings of these issues in Africa.
In recent years, land tenure and resource rights have been debated in cases 
involving Australian aboriginal peoples, South American groups, and oth-
ers. In some cases anthropologists have attempted to advise or arbitrate (see 
advocacy). See also sharecropping.
Further reading: Gluckman (1972); Wilmsen (1989).
Lang, Andrew (1844–1912). Scottish classicist, poet, and writer on folk-
lore (born Selkirk; educated in Scotland and at Oxford) whose interests 
led to disputes with a number of writers on myth and religion, such as 
frazer and Max Müller. His many and varied works include Custom 
and myth (1884), The making of religion (1898), and The secret of the 
totem (1905).
language. Any kind of symbolic system of communication, frequently under-
stood as strictly meaning human speech and writing in particular but also 
encompassing sign language, codes such as Morse or semaphore, and 
 arguably animal communication behavior. By analogy it extends to such 
areas as computer coding.
Language is a fertile area for anthropologists, even at the most basic level 
(it is necessary for an ethnographer doing fieldwork to be able to speak the 
language of the culture studied). See also anthropological linguistics.
Further reading: Jourdan & Tuite (2006).
language acquisition. The study of language acquisition touches on all 
 elements that new speakers—notably, small children—must learn: syntax, 
vocabulary, and usage conventions. To acquire a language the learner 
must have access to others who use it and sufficient motivation (e.g. neces-
sity, prestige) to want to learn. In addition to the core data of what words 
are used and how, the learner picks up contextual information—when and 
how to take turns, appropriate register, and other elements that vary in 
importance according to the particular language and culture. Some 
Morris_c12.indd 146 Morris_c12.indd   146 12/1/2011 4:23:11 PM 12/1/2011   4:23:11 PM
 languages are easier to learn than others, but it has been observed that 
 children especially seem to be predisposed to certain kinds of acquisition.
language classification. Traditionally languages have often been classified by 
family—those languages assumed to share a common protolanguage 
are  grouped together (thus, proto-Indo-European is the ancestor of 
 indo-european, which encompasses English, Greek, and a number of other 
tongues). This kind of genetic classification is the domain of comparative 
linguistics.
Languages may also be grouped by shared features, which might be 
explained as the outcome of culture contact in a region or analyzed by 
language type (those that follow particular grammatical rules, for instance).
Further reading: Campbell & Poser (2008).
language death. The point at which a language becomes completely  disused 
or disappears, for instance because speakers adopt an incoming language 
instead. Extinct or dying languages may be those of minorities, and may be 
of great interest to linguists and anthropologists.
language games. The notion, associated with the later writings of wittgen-
stein, that the use of language should be regarded as similar to a group of 
games, each with its own rules and context. There are family resemblances 
between languages, but these are not sufficient to make generalizations 
about all language use. What is important is how languages are used or 
modified in practice.
Further reading: Wittgenstein (2009).
langue and parole. A linguistic distinction made by saussure: langue, or 
“language,” is the structured set of rules and conventions established com-
munally. Parole, or “speech,” is the language as it is actually used by an 
individual speaker. Saussure characterizes this as the difference between 
the “essential” and the “accessory.”
Further reading: Saussure (1983).
latent. See manifest and latent.
Latin America. The area of Southern America (including Mexico and the 
Caribbean) characterized by cultures in which there is a legacy of coloni-
alism. Such cultures commonly have Spanish or Portuguese as the domi-
nant language and have a mixed heritage of indigenous “indian” roots 
and European influences (“Latin” originally refered to the origins of west-
ern European languages). Among the anthropologists who have investigated 
diverse aspects of Latin American societies such as inequality, power, 
poverty, rural and urban ways of life, sex roles, and violence are Eric 
Wolf, Robert Redfield, and Oscar Lewis. See also catholicism, mestizo.
Morris_c12.indd 147 Morris_c12.indd   147 12/1/2011 4:23:12 PM 12/1/2011   4:23:12 PM
law. In a narrow sense, the rules governing a community, whether derived 
from authority or custom. The anthropological study of law builds on 
foundations laid by such figures as maine (who made important comments 
on contract and status) and ethnographic descriptions from  malinowski 
of local rules. Other distinguished early work was done by gluckman and, 
later, Llewellyn and Hoebel. Around the mid twentieth century there was 
debate about the difference between measures intended to strengthen 
 cultural institutions and less codified forms of social control or sanction, 
and whether this was all “law” or only some of it was. With fresh awareness 
of what became known as legal pluralism in the colonial era, anthro-
pologists began also to study the variety of legal conventions people obey. 
Other newer forms of legal anthropology consider conflict resolution, 
resistance to law and power, and law and terrorism.
Further reading: Maine (2006); Malinowski (1926); Llewellyn & Hoebel (1941); 
Mundy (2002).
Leach, Edmund (1910–89). British anthropologist, originally an engineer. 
Captured in Burma during World War II, he worked among the peoples of 
the Kachin region. At the London School of Economics (at which he was 
reader from 1947 to 1953) and under the influence of malinowski and 
firth, he gravitated toward lévi-strauss and structuralism. He became 
professor of social anthropology at Cambridge (1972–8). His key work is 
Political systems of Highland Burma (2004 [1954])—in which he discusses 
the contrasting political approaches of GUMSA and GUMLAO—but others 
include Rethinking anthropology (1961) and Genesis as myth (1969).
Lee, Richard B. (1937–). See ethology, hunter-gatherer.
Leenhardt, Maurice (1878–1954). See french anthropology.
left. See right and left.
legal anthropology. See law.
legal pluralism. A concept in anthropology of law: what people do in settling 
matters of justice is governed not just by the formal court system (or its equiv-
alent) that nominally regulates them but also by customary practice. Thus 
the law has two (or more) potentially conflicting strands. Legal pluralism 
can also refer to the situation in areas in which there are two or more formal 
legal systems.
legend. See myth.
Leibniz, G. W. (1646–1716). See theodicy.
Leiris, Michel (1901–90). See french anthropology.
Lemkin, Raphael (1900–59). See GENOCIDE.
Morris_c12.indd 148 Morris_c12.indd   148 12/1/2011 4:23:12 PM 12/1/2011   4:23:12 PM
leopard-skin chief or priest. Among the nuer, an individual who mediates 
between parties in a dispute, as described by evans-pritchard. The original 
term (kuaar muon) can be translated as “earth-master” or “chief of the earth. ”
Le Play, Frédéric (1806–1882). See stem family.
Lévi-Strauss, Claude (1908–2009). Belgian-born (in Brussels) French anthro-
pologist, widely admired outside the discipline and the central figure in 
structuralism as applied to anthropology. While teaching at the University 
of São Paulo (from 1935), he pursued amateur fieldwork among Brazilian 
Indians; on returning to France he encountered antisemitism during the 
wartime occupation. Fleeing in 1941 to New York, he taught at the New 
School for Social Research and met Jakobson, whose influence precipitated 
his development of structuralist theory.
His seminal work, The elementary structures of kinship, first appeared in 
1949 (rev. English ed. 1969). From 1950 to 1974 he directed anthropology 
at the École pratique des hautes etudes, and held a chair at the Collège de 
France from 1959. His other major publications include Tristes tropiques 
Figure 15 Lévi-Strauss. A photograph inscribed by Lévi-Strauss to Oxford 
colleagues, 1964. Used by permission of Oxford University, School of Anthropology.
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