NCERT Textbook: Mathematical Reasoning | NCERT Textbooks (Class 6 to Class 12) - CTET & State TET PDF Download

 Page 1


vThere are few things which we know which are not capable of
mathematical reasoning and when these can not, it is a sign that our
knowledge of them is very small and confused and where a mathematical
reasoning can be had, it is as great a folly to make use of another,
as to grope for a thing in the dark when you have a candle stick
standing by you. – ARTHENBOT v
14.1  Introduction
In this Chapter, we shall discuss about some basic ideas of
Mathematical Reasoning. All of us know that human beings
evolved from the lower species over many millennia. The
main asset that made humans “superior” to other species
was the ability to reason. How well this ability can be used
depends on each person’s power of reasoning. How to
develop this power? Here, we shall discuss the process of
reasoning especially in the context of mathematics.
In mathematical language, there are two kinds of
reasoning – inductive and deductive. We have already
discussed the inductive reasoning in the context of
mathematical induction. In this Chapter, we shall discuss
some fundamentals of deductive reasoning.
14.2  Statements
The basic unit involved in mathematical reasoning is a mathematical statement.
Let us start with two sentences:
In 2003, the president of India was a woman.
An elephant weighs more than a human being.
14 Chapter
MATHEMATICAL REASONING
George Boole
 (1815 - 1864)
2022-23
Page 2


vThere are few things which we know which are not capable of
mathematical reasoning and when these can not, it is a sign that our
knowledge of them is very small and confused and where a mathematical
reasoning can be had, it is as great a folly to make use of another,
as to grope for a thing in the dark when you have a candle stick
standing by you. – ARTHENBOT v
14.1  Introduction
In this Chapter, we shall discuss about some basic ideas of
Mathematical Reasoning. All of us know that human beings
evolved from the lower species over many millennia. The
main asset that made humans “superior” to other species
was the ability to reason. How well this ability can be used
depends on each person’s power of reasoning. How to
develop this power? Here, we shall discuss the process of
reasoning especially in the context of mathematics.
In mathematical language, there are two kinds of
reasoning – inductive and deductive. We have already
discussed the inductive reasoning in the context of
mathematical induction. In this Chapter, we shall discuss
some fundamentals of deductive reasoning.
14.2  Statements
The basic unit involved in mathematical reasoning is a mathematical statement.
Let us start with two sentences:
In 2003, the president of India was a woman.
An elephant weighs more than a human being.
14 Chapter
MATHEMATICAL REASONING
George Boole
 (1815 - 1864)
2022-23
322 MATHEMATICS
When we read these sentences, we immediately decide that the first sentence is
false and the second is correct. There is no confusion regarding these. In mathematics
such sentences are called statements.
On the other hand, consider the sentence:
Women are more intelligent than men.
Some people may think it is true while others may disagree. Regarding this sentence
we cannot say whether it is always true or false . That means this sentence is ambiguous.
Such a sentence is not acceptable as a statement in mathematics.
A sentence is called a mathematically acceptable statement if  it is either
true or false but not both. Whenever we mention a statement here, it is a
“mathematically acceptable” statement.
While studying mathematics, we come across many such sentences. Some examples
are:
Two plus two equals four.
The sum of two positive numbers is positive.
All prime numbers are odd numbers.
Of these sentences, the first two are true and the third one is false. There is no
ambiguity regarding these sentences. Therefore, they are statements.
Can you think of an example of a sentence which is vague or ambiguous? Consider
the sentence:
The sum of x and y is greater than 0
Here, we are not in a position to determine whether it is true or false, unless we
know what x and y are. For example, it is false where x = 1, y = –3 and true when
x = 1 and y = 0. Therefore, this sentence is not a statement. But the sentence:
For any natural numbers x and y, the sum of x and y is greater than 0
is a statement.
Now, consider the following sentences :
How beautiful!
Open the door.
Where are you going?
Are they statements? No, because the first one is an exclamation, the second
an order and the third a question. None of these is considered as a statement in
mathematical language. Sentences involving variable time such as “today”, “tomorrow”
or “yesterday” are not statements. This is because it is not known what time is referred
here. For example, the sentence
T omorrow is Friday
2022-23
Page 3


vThere are few things which we know which are not capable of
mathematical reasoning and when these can not, it is a sign that our
knowledge of them is very small and confused and where a mathematical
reasoning can be had, it is as great a folly to make use of another,
as to grope for a thing in the dark when you have a candle stick
standing by you. – ARTHENBOT v
14.1  Introduction
In this Chapter, we shall discuss about some basic ideas of
Mathematical Reasoning. All of us know that human beings
evolved from the lower species over many millennia. The
main asset that made humans “superior” to other species
was the ability to reason. How well this ability can be used
depends on each person’s power of reasoning. How to
develop this power? Here, we shall discuss the process of
reasoning especially in the context of mathematics.
In mathematical language, there are two kinds of
reasoning – inductive and deductive. We have already
discussed the inductive reasoning in the context of
mathematical induction. In this Chapter, we shall discuss
some fundamentals of deductive reasoning.
14.2  Statements
The basic unit involved in mathematical reasoning is a mathematical statement.
Let us start with two sentences:
In 2003, the president of India was a woman.
An elephant weighs more than a human being.
14 Chapter
MATHEMATICAL REASONING
George Boole
 (1815 - 1864)
2022-23
322 MATHEMATICS
When we read these sentences, we immediately decide that the first sentence is
false and the second is correct. There is no confusion regarding these. In mathematics
such sentences are called statements.
On the other hand, consider the sentence:
Women are more intelligent than men.
Some people may think it is true while others may disagree. Regarding this sentence
we cannot say whether it is always true or false . That means this sentence is ambiguous.
Such a sentence is not acceptable as a statement in mathematics.
A sentence is called a mathematically acceptable statement if  it is either
true or false but not both. Whenever we mention a statement here, it is a
“mathematically acceptable” statement.
While studying mathematics, we come across many such sentences. Some examples
are:
Two plus two equals four.
The sum of two positive numbers is positive.
All prime numbers are odd numbers.
Of these sentences, the first two are true and the third one is false. There is no
ambiguity regarding these sentences. Therefore, they are statements.
Can you think of an example of a sentence which is vague or ambiguous? Consider
the sentence:
The sum of x and y is greater than 0
Here, we are not in a position to determine whether it is true or false, unless we
know what x and y are. For example, it is false where x = 1, y = –3 and true when
x = 1 and y = 0. Therefore, this sentence is not a statement. But the sentence:
For any natural numbers x and y, the sum of x and y is greater than 0
is a statement.
Now, consider the following sentences :
How beautiful!
Open the door.
Where are you going?
Are they statements? No, because the first one is an exclamation, the second
an order and the third a question. None of these is considered as a statement in
mathematical language. Sentences involving variable time such as “today”, “tomorrow”
or “yesterday” are not statements. This is because it is not known what time is referred
here. For example, the sentence
T omorrow is Friday
2022-23
  MATHEMATICAL REASONING            323
is not a statement. The sentence is correct (true) on a Thursday but not on other
days. The same argument holds for sentences with pronouns unless a particular
person is referred to and for variable places such as “here”, “there” etc., For
example, the sentences
She is a mathematics graduate.
Kashmir is far from here.
are not statements.
Here is another sentence
There are 40 days in a month.
Would you call this a statement? Note that the period mentioned in the sentence
above is a “variable time” that is any of 12 months. But we know that the sentence is
always false (irrespective of the month) since the maximum number of days in a month
can never exceed 31. Therefore, this sentence is a statement. So, what makes a sentence
a statement is the fact that the sentence is either true or false but not both.
While dealing with statements, we usually denote them by small letters p, q, r,...
For example, we denote the statement “Fire is always hot” by p. This is also written
as
p: Fire is always hot.
Example 1 Check whether the following sentences are statements. Give reasons for
your answer.
(i) 8 is less than 6. (ii) Every set is a finite set.
(iii) The sun is a star. (iv) Mathematics is fun.
(v) There is no rain without clouds. (vi) How far is Chennai from here?
Solution (i) This sentence is false because 8 is greater than 6. Hence it is a statement.
(ii) This sentence is also false since there are sets which are not finite. Hence it is
a statement.
(iii) It is a scientifically established fact that sun is a star and, therefore, this sentence
is always true. Hence it is a statement.
(iv) This sentence is subjective in the sense that for those who like mathematics, it
may be fun but for others it may not be. This means that this sentence is not always
true. Hence it is not a statement.
2022-23
Page 4


vThere are few things which we know which are not capable of
mathematical reasoning and when these can not, it is a sign that our
knowledge of them is very small and confused and where a mathematical
reasoning can be had, it is as great a folly to make use of another,
as to grope for a thing in the dark when you have a candle stick
standing by you. – ARTHENBOT v
14.1  Introduction
In this Chapter, we shall discuss about some basic ideas of
Mathematical Reasoning. All of us know that human beings
evolved from the lower species over many millennia. The
main asset that made humans “superior” to other species
was the ability to reason. How well this ability can be used
depends on each person’s power of reasoning. How to
develop this power? Here, we shall discuss the process of
reasoning especially in the context of mathematics.
In mathematical language, there are two kinds of
reasoning – inductive and deductive. We have already
discussed the inductive reasoning in the context of
mathematical induction. In this Chapter, we shall discuss
some fundamentals of deductive reasoning.
14.2  Statements
The basic unit involved in mathematical reasoning is a mathematical statement.
Let us start with two sentences:
In 2003, the president of India was a woman.
An elephant weighs more than a human being.
14 Chapter
MATHEMATICAL REASONING
George Boole
 (1815 - 1864)
2022-23
322 MATHEMATICS
When we read these sentences, we immediately decide that the first sentence is
false and the second is correct. There is no confusion regarding these. In mathematics
such sentences are called statements.
On the other hand, consider the sentence:
Women are more intelligent than men.
Some people may think it is true while others may disagree. Regarding this sentence
we cannot say whether it is always true or false . That means this sentence is ambiguous.
Such a sentence is not acceptable as a statement in mathematics.
A sentence is called a mathematically acceptable statement if  it is either
true or false but not both. Whenever we mention a statement here, it is a
“mathematically acceptable” statement.
While studying mathematics, we come across many such sentences. Some examples
are:
Two plus two equals four.
The sum of two positive numbers is positive.
All prime numbers are odd numbers.
Of these sentences, the first two are true and the third one is false. There is no
ambiguity regarding these sentences. Therefore, they are statements.
Can you think of an example of a sentence which is vague or ambiguous? Consider
the sentence:
The sum of x and y is greater than 0
Here, we are not in a position to determine whether it is true or false, unless we
know what x and y are. For example, it is false where x = 1, y = –3 and true when
x = 1 and y = 0. Therefore, this sentence is not a statement. But the sentence:
For any natural numbers x and y, the sum of x and y is greater than 0
is a statement.
Now, consider the following sentences :
How beautiful!
Open the door.
Where are you going?
Are they statements? No, because the first one is an exclamation, the second
an order and the third a question. None of these is considered as a statement in
mathematical language. Sentences involving variable time such as “today”, “tomorrow”
or “yesterday” are not statements. This is because it is not known what time is referred
here. For example, the sentence
T omorrow is Friday
2022-23
  MATHEMATICAL REASONING            323
is not a statement. The sentence is correct (true) on a Thursday but not on other
days. The same argument holds for sentences with pronouns unless a particular
person is referred to and for variable places such as “here”, “there” etc., For
example, the sentences
She is a mathematics graduate.
Kashmir is far from here.
are not statements.
Here is another sentence
There are 40 days in a month.
Would you call this a statement? Note that the period mentioned in the sentence
above is a “variable time” that is any of 12 months. But we know that the sentence is
always false (irrespective of the month) since the maximum number of days in a month
can never exceed 31. Therefore, this sentence is a statement. So, what makes a sentence
a statement is the fact that the sentence is either true or false but not both.
While dealing with statements, we usually denote them by small letters p, q, r,...
For example, we denote the statement “Fire is always hot” by p. This is also written
as
p: Fire is always hot.
Example 1 Check whether the following sentences are statements. Give reasons for
your answer.
(i) 8 is less than 6. (ii) Every set is a finite set.
(iii) The sun is a star. (iv) Mathematics is fun.
(v) There is no rain without clouds. (vi) How far is Chennai from here?
Solution (i) This sentence is false because 8 is greater than 6. Hence it is a statement.
(ii) This sentence is also false since there are sets which are not finite. Hence it is
a statement.
(iii) It is a scientifically established fact that sun is a star and, therefore, this sentence
is always true. Hence it is a statement.
(iv) This sentence is subjective in the sense that for those who like mathematics, it
may be fun but for others it may not be. This means that this sentence is not always
true. Hence it is not a statement.
2022-23
324 MATHEMATICS
(v) It is a scientifically established natural phenomenon that cloud is formed before it
rains. Therefore, this sentence is always true. Hence it is a statement.
(vi) This is a question which also contains the word “Here”. Hence it is not a statement.
The above examples show that whenever we say that a sentence is a statement
we should always say why it is so. This “why” of it is more important than the answer.
EXERCISE 14.1
1. Which of the following sentences are statements? Give reasons for your answer.
(i) There are 35 days in a month.
(ii) Mathematics is difficult.
(iii) The sum of 5 and 7 is greater than 10.
(iv) The square of a number is an even number.
(v) The sides of a quadrilateral have equal length.
(vi) Answer this question.
(vii) The product of (–1) and 8 is 8.
(viii) The sum of all interior angles of a triangle is 180°.
(ix) Today is a windy day.
(x) All real numbers are complex numbers.
2. Give three examples of sentences which are not statements. Give reasons for the
answers.
14.3 New Statements from Old
We now look into method for producing new statements from those that we already
have. An English mathematician, “George Boole” discussed these methods in his book
“The laws of Thought” in 1854. Here, we shall discuss two techniques.
As a first step in our study of statements, we look at an important technique that
we may use in order to deepen our understanding of mathematical statements. This
technique is to ask not only what it means to say that a given statement is true but also
what it would mean to say that the given statement is not true.
14.3.1 Negation of a statement  The denial of a statement  is called the negation of
the statement.
Let us consider the statement:
p: New Delhi is a city
The negation of this statement is
2022-23
Page 5


vThere are few things which we know which are not capable of
mathematical reasoning and when these can not, it is a sign that our
knowledge of them is very small and confused and where a mathematical
reasoning can be had, it is as great a folly to make use of another,
as to grope for a thing in the dark when you have a candle stick
standing by you. – ARTHENBOT v
14.1  Introduction
In this Chapter, we shall discuss about some basic ideas of
Mathematical Reasoning. All of us know that human beings
evolved from the lower species over many millennia. The
main asset that made humans “superior” to other species
was the ability to reason. How well this ability can be used
depends on each person’s power of reasoning. How to
develop this power? Here, we shall discuss the process of
reasoning especially in the context of mathematics.
In mathematical language, there are two kinds of
reasoning – inductive and deductive. We have already
discussed the inductive reasoning in the context of
mathematical induction. In this Chapter, we shall discuss
some fundamentals of deductive reasoning.
14.2  Statements
The basic unit involved in mathematical reasoning is a mathematical statement.
Let us start with two sentences:
In 2003, the president of India was a woman.
An elephant weighs more than a human being.
14 Chapter
MATHEMATICAL REASONING
George Boole
 (1815 - 1864)
2022-23
322 MATHEMATICS
When we read these sentences, we immediately decide that the first sentence is
false and the second is correct. There is no confusion regarding these. In mathematics
such sentences are called statements.
On the other hand, consider the sentence:
Women are more intelligent than men.
Some people may think it is true while others may disagree. Regarding this sentence
we cannot say whether it is always true or false . That means this sentence is ambiguous.
Such a sentence is not acceptable as a statement in mathematics.
A sentence is called a mathematically acceptable statement if  it is either
true or false but not both. Whenever we mention a statement here, it is a
“mathematically acceptable” statement.
While studying mathematics, we come across many such sentences. Some examples
are:
Two plus two equals four.
The sum of two positive numbers is positive.
All prime numbers are odd numbers.
Of these sentences, the first two are true and the third one is false. There is no
ambiguity regarding these sentences. Therefore, they are statements.
Can you think of an example of a sentence which is vague or ambiguous? Consider
the sentence:
The sum of x and y is greater than 0
Here, we are not in a position to determine whether it is true or false, unless we
know what x and y are. For example, it is false where x = 1, y = –3 and true when
x = 1 and y = 0. Therefore, this sentence is not a statement. But the sentence:
For any natural numbers x and y, the sum of x and y is greater than 0
is a statement.
Now, consider the following sentences :
How beautiful!
Open the door.
Where are you going?
Are they statements? No, because the first one is an exclamation, the second
an order and the third a question. None of these is considered as a statement in
mathematical language. Sentences involving variable time such as “today”, “tomorrow”
or “yesterday” are not statements. This is because it is not known what time is referred
here. For example, the sentence
T omorrow is Friday
2022-23
  MATHEMATICAL REASONING            323
is not a statement. The sentence is correct (true) on a Thursday but not on other
days. The same argument holds for sentences with pronouns unless a particular
person is referred to and for variable places such as “here”, “there” etc., For
example, the sentences
She is a mathematics graduate.
Kashmir is far from here.
are not statements.
Here is another sentence
There are 40 days in a month.
Would you call this a statement? Note that the period mentioned in the sentence
above is a “variable time” that is any of 12 months. But we know that the sentence is
always false (irrespective of the month) since the maximum number of days in a month
can never exceed 31. Therefore, this sentence is a statement. So, what makes a sentence
a statement is the fact that the sentence is either true or false but not both.
While dealing with statements, we usually denote them by small letters p, q, r,...
For example, we denote the statement “Fire is always hot” by p. This is also written
as
p: Fire is always hot.
Example 1 Check whether the following sentences are statements. Give reasons for
your answer.
(i) 8 is less than 6. (ii) Every set is a finite set.
(iii) The sun is a star. (iv) Mathematics is fun.
(v) There is no rain without clouds. (vi) How far is Chennai from here?
Solution (i) This sentence is false because 8 is greater than 6. Hence it is a statement.
(ii) This sentence is also false since there are sets which are not finite. Hence it is
a statement.
(iii) It is a scientifically established fact that sun is a star and, therefore, this sentence
is always true. Hence it is a statement.
(iv) This sentence is subjective in the sense that for those who like mathematics, it
may be fun but for others it may not be. This means that this sentence is not always
true. Hence it is not a statement.
2022-23
324 MATHEMATICS
(v) It is a scientifically established natural phenomenon that cloud is formed before it
rains. Therefore, this sentence is always true. Hence it is a statement.
(vi) This is a question which also contains the word “Here”. Hence it is not a statement.
The above examples show that whenever we say that a sentence is a statement
we should always say why it is so. This “why” of it is more important than the answer.
EXERCISE 14.1
1. Which of the following sentences are statements? Give reasons for your answer.
(i) There are 35 days in a month.
(ii) Mathematics is difficult.
(iii) The sum of 5 and 7 is greater than 10.
(iv) The square of a number is an even number.
(v) The sides of a quadrilateral have equal length.
(vi) Answer this question.
(vii) The product of (–1) and 8 is 8.
(viii) The sum of all interior angles of a triangle is 180°.
(ix) Today is a windy day.
(x) All real numbers are complex numbers.
2. Give three examples of sentences which are not statements. Give reasons for the
answers.
14.3 New Statements from Old
We now look into method for producing new statements from those that we already
have. An English mathematician, “George Boole” discussed these methods in his book
“The laws of Thought” in 1854. Here, we shall discuss two techniques.
As a first step in our study of statements, we look at an important technique that
we may use in order to deepen our understanding of mathematical statements. This
technique is to ask not only what it means to say that a given statement is true but also
what it would mean to say that the given statement is not true.
14.3.1 Negation of a statement  The denial of a statement  is called the negation of
the statement.
Let us consider the statement:
p: New Delhi is a city
The negation of this statement is
2022-23
  MATHEMATICAL REASONING            325
It is not the case that New Delhi is a city
This can also be written as
It is false that New Delhi is a city.
This can simply be expressed as
New Delhi is not a city.
Definition 1 If p is a statement, then the negation of p is also a statement and is
denoted by ~ p, and read as ‘not p’.
A
Note  While forming the negation of a statement, phrases like, “It is not the
case” or “It is false that” are also used.
Here is an example to illustrate how, by looking at the negation of a statement, we
may improve our understanding of it.
Let us consider the statement
p: Everyone in Germany speaks German.
The denial of this sentence tells us that not everyone in Germany speaks German.
This does not mean that no person in Germany speaks German. It says merely that at
least one person in Germany does not speak German.
We shall consider more examples.
Example 2 Write the negation of the following statements.
(i) Both the diagonals of a rectangle have the same length.
(ii)
7
is rational.
Solution (i) This statement says that in a rectangle, both the diagonals have the same
length. This means that if you take any rectangle, then both the diagonals have the
same length. The negation of this statement is
It is false that both the diagonals in a rectangle have the same length
This means the statement
There is atleast one rectangle whose both diagonals do not
have the same length.
(ii) The negation of the statement in (ii) may also be written as
It is not the case that
7
is rational.
This can also be rewritten as
7
is not rational.
2022-23