NCERT Textbook: What Books & Burials tell us | Old & New NCERTs for IAS Preparation (Must Read) - UPSC PDF Download

 Page 1


33 ?
what books and  
burials tell us One of the oldest literary sources in the world
You may have heard about the Vedas. There are 
four of them – the Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda 
and Atharvaveda.  The oldest Veda is the Rigveda, 
composed about 3500 years ago. The Rigveda 
includes more than a thousand hymns, called 
sukta or “well-said”. These hymns are in praise 
of various gods and goddesses. Three gods are 
especially important: Agni, the god of fire; Indra, 
a warrior god; and Soma, a plant from which a 
special drink was prepared.
These hymns were composed by sages (rishis). 
Priests taught students to recite and memorise 
each syllable, word, and sentence, bit by bit, with 
great care. Most of the hymns were composed, 
taught and learnt by men. A few were composed 
by women. The Rigveda is in old or Vedic Sanskrit, 
which is different from the Sanskrit you learn in 
school these days. 
CHAPTER 4 
WHAT BOOKS AND BURIALS TELL US
Mary in the library
As the bell rang, the teacher asked the students to follow 
him, because they were going to the library for the first 
time. When Mary stepped inside, she found that the library 
was much larger than their classroom. And there were 
so many shelves, all full of books. In one corner was a 
cupboard filled with large, old volumes. Seeing her trying 
to open the cupboard, the teacher said, “That cupboard 
has very special books on different religions. Did you know 
that we have a set of the Vedas?”
What are the Vedas? Mary wondered. Let us find out.
Chapter 3-4.indd   33 22 April 2022   03:22:09
Rationalised 2023-24
Page 2


33 ?
what books and  
burials tell us One of the oldest literary sources in the world
You may have heard about the Vedas. There are 
four of them – the Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda 
and Atharvaveda.  The oldest Veda is the Rigveda, 
composed about 3500 years ago. The Rigveda 
includes more than a thousand hymns, called 
sukta or “well-said”. These hymns are in praise 
of various gods and goddesses. Three gods are 
especially important: Agni, the god of fire; Indra, 
a warrior god; and Soma, a plant from which a 
special drink was prepared.
These hymns were composed by sages (rishis). 
Priests taught students to recite and memorise 
each syllable, word, and sentence, bit by bit, with 
great care. Most of the hymns were composed, 
taught and learnt by men. A few were composed 
by women. The Rigveda is in old or Vedic Sanskrit, 
which is different from the Sanskrit you learn in 
school these days. 
CHAPTER 4 
WHAT BOOKS AND BURIALS TELL US
Mary in the library
As the bell rang, the teacher asked the students to follow 
him, because they were going to the library for the first 
time. When Mary stepped inside, she found that the library 
was much larger than their classroom. And there were 
so many shelves, all full of books. In one corner was a 
cupboard filled with large, old volumes. Seeing her trying 
to open the cupboard, the teacher said, “That cupboard 
has very special books on different religions. Did you know 
that we have a set of the Vedas?”
What are the Vedas? Mary wondered. Let us find out.
Chapter 3-4.indd   33 22 April 2022   03:22:09
Rationalised 2023-24
? 34
our pasts –i Sanskrit and other languages
Sanskrit is a part of family of languages known as Indo-European. 
Some Indian languages such as Assamese, Gujarati, Hindi, Kashmiri and 
Sindhi; Asian languages such as Persian and many European languages 
such as English, French, German, Greek, Italian and Spanish belong to 
this family. They are called a family because they originally had words 
in common.  
Take the words ‘matr’ (Sanskrit), ‘ma’ (Hindi) and ‘mother’ (English). 
Do you notice any similarities? 
Other languages used in the subcontinent belong to different families. 
For instance, those used in the north-east belong to the Tibeto-Burman 
family; Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam belong to the Dravidian 
family; and the languages spoken in Jharkhand and parts of central 
India belong to the Austro-Asiatic family. 
List the languages you have heard about and try and identify the 
families to which they belong.
The books we use are written and printed. The 
Rigveda was recited and heard rather than read.  
It was written down several centuries after it 
was first composed, and printed less than 200  
years ago.  
How historians study the Rigveda 
Historians, like archaeologists, find out about the 
past, but, in addition to material remains, they 
examine written sources as well. Let us see how 
they study the Rigveda.
Some of the hymns in the Rigveda are in the 
form of dialogues. This is part of one such hymn, a 
dialogue between a sage named Vishvamitra, and 
two rivers, (Beas and Sutlej) that were worshipped 
as goddesses. 
Find the rivers on Map 1 (page 2), then read on:
Chapter 3-4.indd   34 22 April 2022   03:22:09
Rationalised 2023-24
Page 3


33 ?
what books and  
burials tell us One of the oldest literary sources in the world
You may have heard about the Vedas. There are 
four of them – the Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda 
and Atharvaveda.  The oldest Veda is the Rigveda, 
composed about 3500 years ago. The Rigveda 
includes more than a thousand hymns, called 
sukta or “well-said”. These hymns are in praise 
of various gods and goddesses. Three gods are 
especially important: Agni, the god of fire; Indra, 
a warrior god; and Soma, a plant from which a 
special drink was prepared.
These hymns were composed by sages (rishis). 
Priests taught students to recite and memorise 
each syllable, word, and sentence, bit by bit, with 
great care. Most of the hymns were composed, 
taught and learnt by men. A few were composed 
by women. The Rigveda is in old or Vedic Sanskrit, 
which is different from the Sanskrit you learn in 
school these days. 
CHAPTER 4 
WHAT BOOKS AND BURIALS TELL US
Mary in the library
As the bell rang, the teacher asked the students to follow 
him, because they were going to the library for the first 
time. When Mary stepped inside, she found that the library 
was much larger than their classroom. And there were 
so many shelves, all full of books. In one corner was a 
cupboard filled with large, old volumes. Seeing her trying 
to open the cupboard, the teacher said, “That cupboard 
has very special books on different religions. Did you know 
that we have a set of the Vedas?”
What are the Vedas? Mary wondered. Let us find out.
Chapter 3-4.indd   33 22 April 2022   03:22:09
Rationalised 2023-24
? 34
our pasts –i Sanskrit and other languages
Sanskrit is a part of family of languages known as Indo-European. 
Some Indian languages such as Assamese, Gujarati, Hindi, Kashmiri and 
Sindhi; Asian languages such as Persian and many European languages 
such as English, French, German, Greek, Italian and Spanish belong to 
this family. They are called a family because they originally had words 
in common.  
Take the words ‘matr’ (Sanskrit), ‘ma’ (Hindi) and ‘mother’ (English). 
Do you notice any similarities? 
Other languages used in the subcontinent belong to different families. 
For instance, those used in the north-east belong to the Tibeto-Burman 
family; Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam belong to the Dravidian 
family; and the languages spoken in Jharkhand and parts of central 
India belong to the Austro-Asiatic family. 
List the languages you have heard about and try and identify the 
families to which they belong.
The books we use are written and printed. The 
Rigveda was recited and heard rather than read.  
It was written down several centuries after it 
was first composed, and printed less than 200  
years ago.  
How historians study the Rigveda 
Historians, like archaeologists, find out about the 
past, but, in addition to material remains, they 
examine written sources as well. Let us see how 
they study the Rigveda.
Some of the hymns in the Rigveda are in the 
form of dialogues. This is part of one such hymn, a 
dialogue between a sage named Vishvamitra, and 
two rivers, (Beas and Sutlej) that were worshipped 
as goddesses. 
Find the rivers on Map 1 (page 2), then read on:
Chapter 3-4.indd   34 22 April 2022   03:22:09
Rationalised 2023-24
35 ?
what books and  
burials tell us A page from a manuscript 
of the Rigveda.
This manuscript of the 
Rigveda, on birch bark, was 
found in Kashmir. About 
1 50 years ago, it was used 
to prepare one of the 
earliest printed texts of 
the Rigveda, as well as an 
English translation. It is 
now preserved in a library 
in Pune, Maharashtra.
Vishvamitra and the Rivers 
Vishvamitra: O rivers, come down from the mountains like two swift horses, 
like two shining cows that lick their calves. 
You move like chariots to the sea, through the power of Indra. You are full of 
water and wish to unite with one another. 
The rivers: We, who are full of water, move along the path the gods have made 
for us. Once we start flowing, we cannot be stopped. Why do you pray to us, o 
sage? 
Vishvamitra: O sisters, please listen to me, the singer who has come from a 
distance with his chariots and carts. Let your waters not rise above our axles, so 
that we can cross safely. 
The rivers:  We will listen to your prayers so that you can cross safely.
Historians point out that this hymn was composed in the area where 
these rivers flow. They also suggest that the sage lived in a society where 
horses and cows were valued animals. That is why the rivers are compared 
to horses and cows.  
Do you think chariots were also important? Give reasons for your answer. 
Read the verses and find out what are the modes of transport that are 
mentioned.  
Other rivers, especially the Indus and its other tributaries, and the 
Sarasvati, are also named in the hymns.  The Ganga and Yamuna are 
named only once.  
Look at Map 1 (page 2) and list 5 rivers that are not mentioned in the 
Rigveda.
Chapter 3-4.indd   35 22 April 2022   03:22:09
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Page 4


33 ?
what books and  
burials tell us One of the oldest literary sources in the world
You may have heard about the Vedas. There are 
four of them – the Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda 
and Atharvaveda.  The oldest Veda is the Rigveda, 
composed about 3500 years ago. The Rigveda 
includes more than a thousand hymns, called 
sukta or “well-said”. These hymns are in praise 
of various gods and goddesses. Three gods are 
especially important: Agni, the god of fire; Indra, 
a warrior god; and Soma, a plant from which a 
special drink was prepared.
These hymns were composed by sages (rishis). 
Priests taught students to recite and memorise 
each syllable, word, and sentence, bit by bit, with 
great care. Most of the hymns were composed, 
taught and learnt by men. A few were composed 
by women. The Rigveda is in old or Vedic Sanskrit, 
which is different from the Sanskrit you learn in 
school these days. 
CHAPTER 4 
WHAT BOOKS AND BURIALS TELL US
Mary in the library
As the bell rang, the teacher asked the students to follow 
him, because they were going to the library for the first 
time. When Mary stepped inside, she found that the library 
was much larger than their classroom. And there were 
so many shelves, all full of books. In one corner was a 
cupboard filled with large, old volumes. Seeing her trying 
to open the cupboard, the teacher said, “That cupboard 
has very special books on different religions. Did you know 
that we have a set of the Vedas?”
What are the Vedas? Mary wondered. Let us find out.
Chapter 3-4.indd   33 22 April 2022   03:22:09
Rationalised 2023-24
? 34
our pasts –i Sanskrit and other languages
Sanskrit is a part of family of languages known as Indo-European. 
Some Indian languages such as Assamese, Gujarati, Hindi, Kashmiri and 
Sindhi; Asian languages such as Persian and many European languages 
such as English, French, German, Greek, Italian and Spanish belong to 
this family. They are called a family because they originally had words 
in common.  
Take the words ‘matr’ (Sanskrit), ‘ma’ (Hindi) and ‘mother’ (English). 
Do you notice any similarities? 
Other languages used in the subcontinent belong to different families. 
For instance, those used in the north-east belong to the Tibeto-Burman 
family; Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam belong to the Dravidian 
family; and the languages spoken in Jharkhand and parts of central 
India belong to the Austro-Asiatic family. 
List the languages you have heard about and try and identify the 
families to which they belong.
The books we use are written and printed. The 
Rigveda was recited and heard rather than read.  
It was written down several centuries after it 
was first composed, and printed less than 200  
years ago.  
How historians study the Rigveda 
Historians, like archaeologists, find out about the 
past, but, in addition to material remains, they 
examine written sources as well. Let us see how 
they study the Rigveda.
Some of the hymns in the Rigveda are in the 
form of dialogues. This is part of one such hymn, a 
dialogue between a sage named Vishvamitra, and 
two rivers, (Beas and Sutlej) that were worshipped 
as goddesses. 
Find the rivers on Map 1 (page 2), then read on:
Chapter 3-4.indd   34 22 April 2022   03:22:09
Rationalised 2023-24
35 ?
what books and  
burials tell us A page from a manuscript 
of the Rigveda.
This manuscript of the 
Rigveda, on birch bark, was 
found in Kashmir. About 
1 50 years ago, it was used 
to prepare one of the 
earliest printed texts of 
the Rigveda, as well as an 
English translation. It is 
now preserved in a library 
in Pune, Maharashtra.
Vishvamitra and the Rivers 
Vishvamitra: O rivers, come down from the mountains like two swift horses, 
like two shining cows that lick their calves. 
You move like chariots to the sea, through the power of Indra. You are full of 
water and wish to unite with one another. 
The rivers: We, who are full of water, move along the path the gods have made 
for us. Once we start flowing, we cannot be stopped. Why do you pray to us, o 
sage? 
Vishvamitra: O sisters, please listen to me, the singer who has come from a 
distance with his chariots and carts. Let your waters not rise above our axles, so 
that we can cross safely. 
The rivers:  We will listen to your prayers so that you can cross safely.
Historians point out that this hymn was composed in the area where 
these rivers flow. They also suggest that the sage lived in a society where 
horses and cows were valued animals. That is why the rivers are compared 
to horses and cows.  
Do you think chariots were also important? Give reasons for your answer. 
Read the verses and find out what are the modes of transport that are 
mentioned.  
Other rivers, especially the Indus and its other tributaries, and the 
Sarasvati, are also named in the hymns.  The Ganga and Yamuna are 
named only once.  
Look at Map 1 (page 2) and list 5 rivers that are not mentioned in the 
Rigveda.
Chapter 3-4.indd   35 22 April 2022   03:22:09
Rationalised 2023-24
? 36
our pasts –i Cattle, horses and chariots
There are many prayers in the Rigveda for cattle, 
children (especially sons), and horses. Horses were 
yoked to chariots that were used in battles, which 
were fought to capture cattle. Battles were also 
fought for land, which was important for pasture, 
and for growing hardy crops that ripened quickly, 
such as barley.  Some battles were fought for water, 
and to capture people. 
Some of the wealth that was obtained was kept 
by the leaders, some was given to the priests and 
the rest was distributed amongst the people. Some 
wealth was used for the performance of yajnas or 
sacrifices in which offerings were made into the 
fire. These were meant for gods and goddesses. 
Offerings could include ghee, grain, and in some 
cases, animals. 
Most men took part in these wars. There was 
no regular army, but there were assemblies where 
people met and discussed matters of war and 
peace. They also chose leaders, who were often 
brave and skilful warriors. 
Words to describe people
There are several ways of describing people — 
in terms of the work they do, the language they 
speak, the place they belong to, their family, their 
communities and cultural practices. Let us see 
some of the words used to describe people found 
in the Rigveda.
There are two groups who are described in  
terms of their work — the priests, sometimes  
called brahmins, who performed various rituals, 
and the rajas. 
These rajas were not like the ones you will be 
learning about later. They did not have capital 
cities, palaces or armies, nor did they collect taxes. 
Chapter 3-4.indd   36 22 April 2022   03:22:09
Rationalised 2023-24
Page 5


33 ?
what books and  
burials tell us One of the oldest literary sources in the world
You may have heard about the Vedas. There are 
four of them – the Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda 
and Atharvaveda.  The oldest Veda is the Rigveda, 
composed about 3500 years ago. The Rigveda 
includes more than a thousand hymns, called 
sukta or “well-said”. These hymns are in praise 
of various gods and goddesses. Three gods are 
especially important: Agni, the god of fire; Indra, 
a warrior god; and Soma, a plant from which a 
special drink was prepared.
These hymns were composed by sages (rishis). 
Priests taught students to recite and memorise 
each syllable, word, and sentence, bit by bit, with 
great care. Most of the hymns were composed, 
taught and learnt by men. A few were composed 
by women. The Rigveda is in old or Vedic Sanskrit, 
which is different from the Sanskrit you learn in 
school these days. 
CHAPTER 4 
WHAT BOOKS AND BURIALS TELL US
Mary in the library
As the bell rang, the teacher asked the students to follow 
him, because they were going to the library for the first 
time. When Mary stepped inside, she found that the library 
was much larger than their classroom. And there were 
so many shelves, all full of books. In one corner was a 
cupboard filled with large, old volumes. Seeing her trying 
to open the cupboard, the teacher said, “That cupboard 
has very special books on different religions. Did you know 
that we have a set of the Vedas?”
What are the Vedas? Mary wondered. Let us find out.
Chapter 3-4.indd   33 22 April 2022   03:22:09
Rationalised 2023-24
? 34
our pasts –i Sanskrit and other languages
Sanskrit is a part of family of languages known as Indo-European. 
Some Indian languages such as Assamese, Gujarati, Hindi, Kashmiri and 
Sindhi; Asian languages such as Persian and many European languages 
such as English, French, German, Greek, Italian and Spanish belong to 
this family. They are called a family because they originally had words 
in common.  
Take the words ‘matr’ (Sanskrit), ‘ma’ (Hindi) and ‘mother’ (English). 
Do you notice any similarities? 
Other languages used in the subcontinent belong to different families. 
For instance, those used in the north-east belong to the Tibeto-Burman 
family; Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam belong to the Dravidian 
family; and the languages spoken in Jharkhand and parts of central 
India belong to the Austro-Asiatic family. 
List the languages you have heard about and try and identify the 
families to which they belong.
The books we use are written and printed. The 
Rigveda was recited and heard rather than read.  
It was written down several centuries after it 
was first composed, and printed less than 200  
years ago.  
How historians study the Rigveda 
Historians, like archaeologists, find out about the 
past, but, in addition to material remains, they 
examine written sources as well. Let us see how 
they study the Rigveda.
Some of the hymns in the Rigveda are in the 
form of dialogues. This is part of one such hymn, a 
dialogue between a sage named Vishvamitra, and 
two rivers, (Beas and Sutlej) that were worshipped 
as goddesses. 
Find the rivers on Map 1 (page 2), then read on:
Chapter 3-4.indd   34 22 April 2022   03:22:09
Rationalised 2023-24
35 ?
what books and  
burials tell us A page from a manuscript 
of the Rigveda.
This manuscript of the 
Rigveda, on birch bark, was 
found in Kashmir. About 
1 50 years ago, it was used 
to prepare one of the 
earliest printed texts of 
the Rigveda, as well as an 
English translation. It is 
now preserved in a library 
in Pune, Maharashtra.
Vishvamitra and the Rivers 
Vishvamitra: O rivers, come down from the mountains like two swift horses, 
like two shining cows that lick their calves. 
You move like chariots to the sea, through the power of Indra. You are full of 
water and wish to unite with one another. 
The rivers: We, who are full of water, move along the path the gods have made 
for us. Once we start flowing, we cannot be stopped. Why do you pray to us, o 
sage? 
Vishvamitra: O sisters, please listen to me, the singer who has come from a 
distance with his chariots and carts. Let your waters not rise above our axles, so 
that we can cross safely. 
The rivers:  We will listen to your prayers so that you can cross safely.
Historians point out that this hymn was composed in the area where 
these rivers flow. They also suggest that the sage lived in a society where 
horses and cows were valued animals. That is why the rivers are compared 
to horses and cows.  
Do you think chariots were also important? Give reasons for your answer. 
Read the verses and find out what are the modes of transport that are 
mentioned.  
Other rivers, especially the Indus and its other tributaries, and the 
Sarasvati, are also named in the hymns.  The Ganga and Yamuna are 
named only once.  
Look at Map 1 (page 2) and list 5 rivers that are not mentioned in the 
Rigveda.
Chapter 3-4.indd   35 22 April 2022   03:22:09
Rationalised 2023-24
? 36
our pasts –i Cattle, horses and chariots
There are many prayers in the Rigveda for cattle, 
children (especially sons), and horses. Horses were 
yoked to chariots that were used in battles, which 
were fought to capture cattle. Battles were also 
fought for land, which was important for pasture, 
and for growing hardy crops that ripened quickly, 
such as barley.  Some battles were fought for water, 
and to capture people. 
Some of the wealth that was obtained was kept 
by the leaders, some was given to the priests and 
the rest was distributed amongst the people. Some 
wealth was used for the performance of yajnas or 
sacrifices in which offerings were made into the 
fire. These were meant for gods and goddesses. 
Offerings could include ghee, grain, and in some 
cases, animals. 
Most men took part in these wars. There was 
no regular army, but there were assemblies where 
people met and discussed matters of war and 
peace. They also chose leaders, who were often 
brave and skilful warriors. 
Words to describe people
There are several ways of describing people — 
in terms of the work they do, the language they 
speak, the place they belong to, their family, their 
communities and cultural practices. Let us see 
some of the words used to describe people found 
in the Rigveda.
There are two groups who are described in  
terms of their work — the priests, sometimes  
called brahmins, who performed various rituals, 
and the rajas. 
These rajas were not like the ones you will be 
learning about later. They did not have capital 
cities, palaces or armies, nor did they collect taxes. 
Chapter 3-4.indd   36 22 April 2022   03:22:09
Rationalised 2023-24
37 ?
what books and  
burials tell us Generally, sons did not automatically succeed 
fathers as rajas. 
Read the previous section once more and see 
whether you can find out what the rajas did. 
Two words were used to describe the people or 
the community as a whole. One was the word jana, 
which we still use in Hindi and other languages. 
The other was vish. The word vaishya comes from 
vish. You will learn more about this in Chapter 5. 
Several vish or jana are mentioned by name. 
So we find reference to the Puru jana or vish, the 
Bharata jana or vish, the Yadu jana or vish, and 
so on. 
Do any of these names sound familiar? 
Sometimes, the people who composed the hymns 
described themselves as Aryas and called their 
opponents Dasas or Dasyus. These were people 
who did not perform sacrifices, and probably spoke 
different languages. Later, the term dasa (and the 
feminine dasi) came to mean slave. Slaves were 
women and men who were often captured in war. 
They were treated as the property of their owners, 
who could make them do whatever work they 
wanted. 
While the Rigveda was being composed in the 
north-west of the subcontinent, there were other 
developments elsewhere. Let us look at some of 
these. 
Silent sentinels—the story of the megaliths
Look at the illustration on the next page.
These stone boulders are known as megaliths 
(literally big stones). These were carefully arranged 
by people, and were used to mark burial sites. 
The practice of erecting megaliths began about  
3000 years ago, and was prevalent throughout  
the Deccan, south India, in the north-east and 
Kashmir. 
Chapter 3-4.indd   37 22 April 2022   03:22:09
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