NCERT Textbook: Villages, Towns and Trade | Old & New NCERTs for IAS Preparation (Must Read) - UPSC PDF Download

 Page 1


73 ?
villages , towns and 
trade Iron tools and agriculture
We often take the use of iron for granted today. 
Things made of iron (and steel) are a part of 
our daily lives. The use of iron began in the 
subcontinent around 3000 years ago. Some of the 
largest collections of iron tools and weapons were 
found in the megalithic burials, about which you 
read in Chapter 4.
Around 2500 years ago, there is evidence for the 
growing use of iron tools. These included axes for 
clearing forests, and the iron ploughshare. As we 
had seen (Chapter 5), the ploughshare was useful 
for increasing agricultural production. 
Other steps to increase production: irrigation 
The kings and kingdoms you have been reading 
about could not have existed without the support 
of flourishing villages. While new tools and the 
system of transplantation (Chapter 5) increased 
production, irrigation was also used. Irrigation 
works that were built during this time included 
canals, wells, tanks, and artificial lakes.
CHAPTER 8
VILLAGES, TOWNS AND TRADE
Prabhakar at the blacksmith’s shop
Prabhakar sat watching the smiths at the local shop. 
There was a small bench on which iron tools like axes 
and sickles were laid out, ready for sale. A bright fire was 
burning, and two men were heating and beating metal 
rods into shape. It was very hot and noisy, and yet it was 
fascinating to watch what was happening.
Iron tools. 
Here is a set of captions. 
Choose the right one for 
each of the pictures.
Sickle, tongs, axe.
Prepare a list of at least 
five objects made of 
iron or steel that you use 
almost everyday.
Chapter 7-8.indd   73 22 April 2022   02:36:34
Rationalised 2023-24
Page 2


73 ?
villages , towns and 
trade Iron tools and agriculture
We often take the use of iron for granted today. 
Things made of iron (and steel) are a part of 
our daily lives. The use of iron began in the 
subcontinent around 3000 years ago. Some of the 
largest collections of iron tools and weapons were 
found in the megalithic burials, about which you 
read in Chapter 4.
Around 2500 years ago, there is evidence for the 
growing use of iron tools. These included axes for 
clearing forests, and the iron ploughshare. As we 
had seen (Chapter 5), the ploughshare was useful 
for increasing agricultural production. 
Other steps to increase production: irrigation 
The kings and kingdoms you have been reading 
about could not have existed without the support 
of flourishing villages. While new tools and the 
system of transplantation (Chapter 5) increased 
production, irrigation was also used. Irrigation 
works that were built during this time included 
canals, wells, tanks, and artificial lakes.
CHAPTER 8
VILLAGES, TOWNS AND TRADE
Prabhakar at the blacksmith’s shop
Prabhakar sat watching the smiths at the local shop. 
There was a small bench on which iron tools like axes 
and sickles were laid out, ready for sale. A bright fire was 
burning, and two men were heating and beating metal 
rods into shape. It was very hot and noisy, and yet it was 
fascinating to watch what was happening.
Iron tools. 
Here is a set of captions. 
Choose the right one for 
each of the pictures.
Sickle, tongs, axe.
Prepare a list of at least 
five objects made of 
iron or steel that you use 
almost everyday.
Chapter 7-8.indd   73 22 April 2022   02:36:34
Rationalised 2023-24
? 74
our pasts –i Who lived in the villages? 
There were at least three different kinds of 
people living in most villages in the southern and 
northern parts of the subcontinent. In the Tamil 
region, large landowners were known as vellalar, 
ordinary ploughmen were known as uzhavar, and 
landless labourers, including slaves, were known 
as kadaisiyar and adimai. 
1. Kings need money for armies, 
palaces, forts.
2. They demand taxes from farmers.  
4. This is possible with irrigation.   
6. 
7 . Production increases.   
3.
5.
8. So does revenue.   
9.  
If you look at the chart, you will find that some 
of the stages in the construction of irrigation works 
are mentioned. 
Fill in the rest by using the following phrases:  
• Labour is provided by the people.
• Farmers also benefit because crop production is 
more certain. 
• Farmers have to increase production to pay taxes.
• Kings provide money and plan irrigation works. 
Chapter 7-8.indd   74 22 April 2022   02:36:34
Rationalised 2023-24
Page 3


73 ?
villages , towns and 
trade Iron tools and agriculture
We often take the use of iron for granted today. 
Things made of iron (and steel) are a part of 
our daily lives. The use of iron began in the 
subcontinent around 3000 years ago. Some of the 
largest collections of iron tools and weapons were 
found in the megalithic burials, about which you 
read in Chapter 4.
Around 2500 years ago, there is evidence for the 
growing use of iron tools. These included axes for 
clearing forests, and the iron ploughshare. As we 
had seen (Chapter 5), the ploughshare was useful 
for increasing agricultural production. 
Other steps to increase production: irrigation 
The kings and kingdoms you have been reading 
about could not have existed without the support 
of flourishing villages. While new tools and the 
system of transplantation (Chapter 5) increased 
production, irrigation was also used. Irrigation 
works that were built during this time included 
canals, wells, tanks, and artificial lakes.
CHAPTER 8
VILLAGES, TOWNS AND TRADE
Prabhakar at the blacksmith’s shop
Prabhakar sat watching the smiths at the local shop. 
There was a small bench on which iron tools like axes 
and sickles were laid out, ready for sale. A bright fire was 
burning, and two men were heating and beating metal 
rods into shape. It was very hot and noisy, and yet it was 
fascinating to watch what was happening.
Iron tools. 
Here is a set of captions. 
Choose the right one for 
each of the pictures.
Sickle, tongs, axe.
Prepare a list of at least 
five objects made of 
iron or steel that you use 
almost everyday.
Chapter 7-8.indd   73 22 April 2022   02:36:34
Rationalised 2023-24
? 74
our pasts –i Who lived in the villages? 
There were at least three different kinds of 
people living in most villages in the southern and 
northern parts of the subcontinent. In the Tamil 
region, large landowners were known as vellalar, 
ordinary ploughmen were known as uzhavar, and 
landless labourers, including slaves, were known 
as kadaisiyar and adimai. 
1. Kings need money for armies, 
palaces, forts.
2. They demand taxes from farmers.  
4. This is possible with irrigation.   
6. 
7 . Production increases.   
3.
5.
8. So does revenue.   
9.  
If you look at the chart, you will find that some 
of the stages in the construction of irrigation works 
are mentioned. 
Fill in the rest by using the following phrases:  
• Labour is provided by the people.
• Farmers also benefit because crop production is 
more certain. 
• Farmers have to increase production to pay taxes.
• Kings provide money and plan irrigation works. 
Chapter 7-8.indd   74 22 April 2022   02:36:34
Rationalised 2023-24
75 ?
villages , towns and 
trade In the northern part of the country, the village 
headman was known as the grama bhojaka. 
Usually, men from the same family held the 
position for generations. In other words, the post 
was hereditary. The grama bhojaka was often the 
largest landowner. Generally, he had slaves and 
hired workers to cultivate the land. Besides, as he 
was powerful, the king often used him to collect 
taxes from the village. He also functioned as a 
judge, and sometimes as a policeman. 
Apart from the grama bhojaka, there were other 
independent farmers, known as grihapatis, most 
of whom were smaller landowners. And then there 
were men and women such as the dasa karmakara, 
who did not own land, and had to earn a living 
working on the fields owned by others.  
In most villages there were also some  
craftspersons such as the blacksmith, potter, 
carpenter and weaver.
Coins
Archaeologists have found several thousands of 
coins belonging to this period. The earliest coins 
which were in use for about 500 years were  
punch-marked coins, such as the one shown here. 
The earliest T amil compositions
Some of the earliest works in Tamil, known as 
Sangam literature, were composed around 2300 
years ago. These texts were called Sangam because 
they were supposed to have been composed and 
compiled in assemblies (known as sangams) of 
poets that were held in the city of Madurai (see 
Map 7, page 87). The Tamil terms mentioned above 
are found in Sangam literature.
Chapter 7-8.indd   75 25 April 2022   02:28:35
Rationalised 2023-24
Page 4


73 ?
villages , towns and 
trade Iron tools and agriculture
We often take the use of iron for granted today. 
Things made of iron (and steel) are a part of 
our daily lives. The use of iron began in the 
subcontinent around 3000 years ago. Some of the 
largest collections of iron tools and weapons were 
found in the megalithic burials, about which you 
read in Chapter 4.
Around 2500 years ago, there is evidence for the 
growing use of iron tools. These included axes for 
clearing forests, and the iron ploughshare. As we 
had seen (Chapter 5), the ploughshare was useful 
for increasing agricultural production. 
Other steps to increase production: irrigation 
The kings and kingdoms you have been reading 
about could not have existed without the support 
of flourishing villages. While new tools and the 
system of transplantation (Chapter 5) increased 
production, irrigation was also used. Irrigation 
works that were built during this time included 
canals, wells, tanks, and artificial lakes.
CHAPTER 8
VILLAGES, TOWNS AND TRADE
Prabhakar at the blacksmith’s shop
Prabhakar sat watching the smiths at the local shop. 
There was a small bench on which iron tools like axes 
and sickles were laid out, ready for sale. A bright fire was 
burning, and two men were heating and beating metal 
rods into shape. It was very hot and noisy, and yet it was 
fascinating to watch what was happening.
Iron tools. 
Here is a set of captions. 
Choose the right one for 
each of the pictures.
Sickle, tongs, axe.
Prepare a list of at least 
five objects made of 
iron or steel that you use 
almost everyday.
Chapter 7-8.indd   73 22 April 2022   02:36:34
Rationalised 2023-24
? 74
our pasts –i Who lived in the villages? 
There were at least three different kinds of 
people living in most villages in the southern and 
northern parts of the subcontinent. In the Tamil 
region, large landowners were known as vellalar, 
ordinary ploughmen were known as uzhavar, and 
landless labourers, including slaves, were known 
as kadaisiyar and adimai. 
1. Kings need money for armies, 
palaces, forts.
2. They demand taxes from farmers.  
4. This is possible with irrigation.   
6. 
7 . Production increases.   
3.
5.
8. So does revenue.   
9.  
If you look at the chart, you will find that some 
of the stages in the construction of irrigation works 
are mentioned. 
Fill in the rest by using the following phrases:  
• Labour is provided by the people.
• Farmers also benefit because crop production is 
more certain. 
• Farmers have to increase production to pay taxes.
• Kings provide money and plan irrigation works. 
Chapter 7-8.indd   74 22 April 2022   02:36:34
Rationalised 2023-24
75 ?
villages , towns and 
trade In the northern part of the country, the village 
headman was known as the grama bhojaka. 
Usually, men from the same family held the 
position for generations. In other words, the post 
was hereditary. The grama bhojaka was often the 
largest landowner. Generally, he had slaves and 
hired workers to cultivate the land. Besides, as he 
was powerful, the king often used him to collect 
taxes from the village. He also functioned as a 
judge, and sometimes as a policeman. 
Apart from the grama bhojaka, there were other 
independent farmers, known as grihapatis, most 
of whom were smaller landowners. And then there 
were men and women such as the dasa karmakara, 
who did not own land, and had to earn a living 
working on the fields owned by others.  
In most villages there were also some  
craftspersons such as the blacksmith, potter, 
carpenter and weaver.
Coins
Archaeologists have found several thousands of 
coins belonging to this period. The earliest coins 
which were in use for about 500 years were  
punch-marked coins, such as the one shown here. 
The earliest T amil compositions
Some of the earliest works in Tamil, known as 
Sangam literature, were composed around 2300 
years ago. These texts were called Sangam because 
they were supposed to have been composed and 
compiled in assemblies (known as sangams) of 
poets that were held in the city of Madurai (see 
Map 7, page 87). The Tamil terms mentioned above 
are found in Sangam literature.
Chapter 7-8.indd   75 25 April 2022   02:28:35
Rationalised 2023-24
? 76
our pasts –i Cities with many functions
Very often, a single town was important for a 
variety of reasons. Let us look at the example of 
Mathura (Map 7, page 87). 
Mathura has been an important settlement for 
more than 2500 years. It was important because it 
was located at the cross roads of two major routes 
of travel and trade — from the northwest to the east 
and from north to south. There were fortifications 
around the city, and several shrines. Farmers and 
herders from adjoining areas provided food for 
Punch-marked Coins
Punch-marked coins were generally rectangular 
or sometimes square or round in shape, either cut 
out of metal sheets or made out of flattened metal 
globules (a small spherical body). The coins were not 
inscribed, but were stamped with symbols using dies 
or punches. Hence, they are called punch-marked 
coins. These coins are found over most parts of the 
subcontinent and remained in circulation till the 
early centuries CE.
Other means of exchange 
Read this short poem from the Sangam collection:
 As they carry the white paddy of their land
 To exchange it for the salt of another,
 Crossing the long roads in carts,
 Through sands white as moonlight,
 Taking whole families,
 Who hate to be left behind,
 The departure of the salt merchants
 Leaves the city empty. 
Salt was produced plentifully along the sea coast. 
What are the merchants planning to exchange 
it with?
How are they travelling? 
Chapter 7-8.indd   76 22 April 2022   02:36:35
Rationalised 2023-24
Page 5


73 ?
villages , towns and 
trade Iron tools and agriculture
We often take the use of iron for granted today. 
Things made of iron (and steel) are a part of 
our daily lives. The use of iron began in the 
subcontinent around 3000 years ago. Some of the 
largest collections of iron tools and weapons were 
found in the megalithic burials, about which you 
read in Chapter 4.
Around 2500 years ago, there is evidence for the 
growing use of iron tools. These included axes for 
clearing forests, and the iron ploughshare. As we 
had seen (Chapter 5), the ploughshare was useful 
for increasing agricultural production. 
Other steps to increase production: irrigation 
The kings and kingdoms you have been reading 
about could not have existed without the support 
of flourishing villages. While new tools and the 
system of transplantation (Chapter 5) increased 
production, irrigation was also used. Irrigation 
works that were built during this time included 
canals, wells, tanks, and artificial lakes.
CHAPTER 8
VILLAGES, TOWNS AND TRADE
Prabhakar at the blacksmith’s shop
Prabhakar sat watching the smiths at the local shop. 
There was a small bench on which iron tools like axes 
and sickles were laid out, ready for sale. A bright fire was 
burning, and two men were heating and beating metal 
rods into shape. It was very hot and noisy, and yet it was 
fascinating to watch what was happening.
Iron tools. 
Here is a set of captions. 
Choose the right one for 
each of the pictures.
Sickle, tongs, axe.
Prepare a list of at least 
five objects made of 
iron or steel that you use 
almost everyday.
Chapter 7-8.indd   73 22 April 2022   02:36:34
Rationalised 2023-24
? 74
our pasts –i Who lived in the villages? 
There were at least three different kinds of 
people living in most villages in the southern and 
northern parts of the subcontinent. In the Tamil 
region, large landowners were known as vellalar, 
ordinary ploughmen were known as uzhavar, and 
landless labourers, including slaves, were known 
as kadaisiyar and adimai. 
1. Kings need money for armies, 
palaces, forts.
2. They demand taxes from farmers.  
4. This is possible with irrigation.   
6. 
7 . Production increases.   
3.
5.
8. So does revenue.   
9.  
If you look at the chart, you will find that some 
of the stages in the construction of irrigation works 
are mentioned. 
Fill in the rest by using the following phrases:  
• Labour is provided by the people.
• Farmers also benefit because crop production is 
more certain. 
• Farmers have to increase production to pay taxes.
• Kings provide money and plan irrigation works. 
Chapter 7-8.indd   74 22 April 2022   02:36:34
Rationalised 2023-24
75 ?
villages , towns and 
trade In the northern part of the country, the village 
headman was known as the grama bhojaka. 
Usually, men from the same family held the 
position for generations. In other words, the post 
was hereditary. The grama bhojaka was often the 
largest landowner. Generally, he had slaves and 
hired workers to cultivate the land. Besides, as he 
was powerful, the king often used him to collect 
taxes from the village. He also functioned as a 
judge, and sometimes as a policeman. 
Apart from the grama bhojaka, there were other 
independent farmers, known as grihapatis, most 
of whom were smaller landowners. And then there 
were men and women such as the dasa karmakara, 
who did not own land, and had to earn a living 
working on the fields owned by others.  
In most villages there were also some  
craftspersons such as the blacksmith, potter, 
carpenter and weaver.
Coins
Archaeologists have found several thousands of 
coins belonging to this period. The earliest coins 
which were in use for about 500 years were  
punch-marked coins, such as the one shown here. 
The earliest T amil compositions
Some of the earliest works in Tamil, known as 
Sangam literature, were composed around 2300 
years ago. These texts were called Sangam because 
they were supposed to have been composed and 
compiled in assemblies (known as sangams) of 
poets that were held in the city of Madurai (see 
Map 7, page 87). The Tamil terms mentioned above 
are found in Sangam literature.
Chapter 7-8.indd   75 25 April 2022   02:28:35
Rationalised 2023-24
? 76
our pasts –i Cities with many functions
Very often, a single town was important for a 
variety of reasons. Let us look at the example of 
Mathura (Map 7, page 87). 
Mathura has been an important settlement for 
more than 2500 years. It was important because it 
was located at the cross roads of two major routes 
of travel and trade — from the northwest to the east 
and from north to south. There were fortifications 
around the city, and several shrines. Farmers and 
herders from adjoining areas provided food for 
Punch-marked Coins
Punch-marked coins were generally rectangular 
or sometimes square or round in shape, either cut 
out of metal sheets or made out of flattened metal 
globules (a small spherical body). The coins were not 
inscribed, but were stamped with symbols using dies 
or punches. Hence, they are called punch-marked 
coins. These coins are found over most parts of the 
subcontinent and remained in circulation till the 
early centuries CE.
Other means of exchange 
Read this short poem from the Sangam collection:
 As they carry the white paddy of their land
 To exchange it for the salt of another,
 Crossing the long roads in carts,
 Through sands white as moonlight,
 Taking whole families,
 Who hate to be left behind,
 The departure of the salt merchants
 Leaves the city empty. 
Salt was produced plentifully along the sea coast. 
What are the merchants planning to exchange 
it with?
How are they travelling? 
Chapter 7-8.indd   76 22 April 2022   02:36:35
Rationalised 2023-24
77 ?
villages , towns and 
trade people in the city. Mathura was also a centre where 
some extremely fine sculpture was produced. 
Around 2000 years ago, Mathura became the 
second capital of the Kushanas, about whom you 
would read. Mathura was also a religious centre — 
there were Buddhist monasteries, Jaina shrines, 
and it was an important centre for the worship of 
Krishna.
Several inscriptions on surfaces such as stone 
slabs and statues have been found in Mathura. 
Generally, these are short inscriptions, recording 
gifts made by men (and sometimes women) to 
monasteries and shrines. These were made by 
kings and queens, officers, merchants, and 
craftspersons who lived in the city. For instance, 
inscriptions from Mathura mention goldsmiths, 
blacksmiths, weavers, basket makers, garland 
makers, perfumers. 
Make a list of the occupations of people who 
lived in Mathura. List one occupation that was not 
practised in Harappan cities. 
Crafts and craftspersons
We also have archaeological evidence 
for crafts. These include extremely fine 
pottery, known as the Northern Black 
Polished Ware (NBPW). It gets its name 
from the fact that it is generally found in 
the northern part of the subcontinent. 
Remember that the archaeological 
evidence for many crafts may not have 
survived. We know from texts that the 
manufacture of cloth was important. 
There were famous centres such as 
Varanasi in the north, and Madurai in 
the south. Both men and women worked 
in these centres.
Northern Black Polished 
Ware (NBPW)
NBPW is a hard, wheel 
made, metallic looking 
ware with a shiny black 
surface. The potter used to 
expose the earthenware to 
very high temperature in 
his kiln which resulted in 
the blackening of its outer 
surface. A fine black slip 
was also applied on this, 
which gave the pottery a 
mirror-like shine.
Chapter 7-8.indd   77 22 April 2022   02:36:35
Rationalised 2023-24