NCERT Textbook: Devotional Paths to the Divine | Old & New NCERTs for IAS Preparation (Must Read) - UPSC PDF Download

 Page 1


61
DEVOTIONAL PATHS 
TO THE DIVINE
Y
ou may have seen people perform rituals of  
worship, or singing ,  or , 
or even repeating the name of God in silence, and 
noticed that some of them are moved to tears. Such 
intense devotion or love of God is the legacy of various 
since the eighth century.
The Idea of a Supreme God
Before large kingdoms emerged, different groups                
of people worshipped their own gods and goddesses. 
As people were brought together through the growth 
of towns, trade and empires, new ideas began to 
develop. The idea that all living things pass through 
countless cycles of birth and rebirth performing good 
deeds and bad came to be widely accepted. Similarly, 
the idea that all human beings are not equal even at 
birth gained ground during this period. The belief that 
social privileges came from birth in a “noble” family or 
a “high” caste was the subject of many learned texts.
Many people were uneasy with such ideas and 
turned to the teachings of the Buddha or the Jainas 
according to which it was possible to overcome social 
differences and break the cycle of rebirth through 
personal effort. Others felt attracted to the idea of a 
Supreme God who could deliver humans from such 
bondage if approached with devotion (or bhakti). 
This idea, advocated in the  grew in 
popularity in the early centuries of the Common Era.  
DEVOTIONAL PATHS 
TO THE DIVINE
The beginning of 
Bhakti
Worship of certain 
deities, which 
became a central 
feature of later 
Hinduism, gained in 
importance. These 
deities included 
Shiva, Vishnu, and 
goddesses such as 
Durga. These deities 
were worshipped 
through Bhakti, an 
idea that became 
very popular at 
this time. Bhakti is 
generally understood 
as a person’s 
devotion to his or 
her chosen deity. 
Anybody, whether 
rich or poor, belonging 
to the so-called ‘high’ 
or ‘low’ castes, man 
or woman, could 
follow the path of 
Bhakti. The idea of 
Bhakti is present in 
the Bhagavad Gita, a 
sacred book of  
the Hindus. 
Page 2


61
DEVOTIONAL PATHS 
TO THE DIVINE
Y
ou may have seen people perform rituals of  
worship, or singing ,  or , 
or even repeating the name of God in silence, and 
noticed that some of them are moved to tears. Such 
intense devotion or love of God is the legacy of various 
since the eighth century.
The Idea of a Supreme God
Before large kingdoms emerged, different groups                
of people worshipped their own gods and goddesses. 
As people were brought together through the growth 
of towns, trade and empires, new ideas began to 
develop. The idea that all living things pass through 
countless cycles of birth and rebirth performing good 
deeds and bad came to be widely accepted. Similarly, 
the idea that all human beings are not equal even at 
birth gained ground during this period. The belief that 
social privileges came from birth in a “noble” family or 
a “high” caste was the subject of many learned texts.
Many people were uneasy with such ideas and 
turned to the teachings of the Buddha or the Jainas 
according to which it was possible to overcome social 
differences and break the cycle of rebirth through 
personal effort. Others felt attracted to the idea of a 
Supreme God who could deliver humans from such 
bondage if approached with devotion (or bhakti). 
This idea, advocated in the  grew in 
popularity in the early centuries of the Common Era.  
DEVOTIONAL PATHS 
TO THE DIVINE
The beginning of 
Bhakti
Worship of certain 
deities, which 
became a central 
feature of later 
Hinduism, gained in 
importance. These 
deities included 
Shiva, Vishnu, and 
goddesses such as 
Durga. These deities 
were worshipped 
through Bhakti, an 
idea that became 
very popular at 
this time. Bhakti is 
generally understood 
as a person’s 
devotion to his or 
her chosen deity. 
Anybody, whether 
rich or poor, belonging 
to the so-called ‘high’ 
or ‘low’ castes, man 
or woman, could 
follow the path of 
Bhakti. The idea of 
Bhakti is present in 
the Bhagavad Gita, a 
sacred book of  
the Hindus. 
62
Shiva, Vishnu and 
Durga as supreme 
deities came to            
be worshipped 
through elaborate 
rituals. At the 
same time, gods 
and goddesses 
worshipped in 
different areas 
c a m e t o b e 
identified with 
Shiva, Vishnu 
or Durga. In the 
process, local myths and legends became a part of the 
Puranic stories, and methods of worship recommended 
in the Puranas were introduced into the local cults. 
Eventually the Puranas also laid down that it was 
possible for devotees to receive the grace of God 
regardless of their caste status. The idea of bhakti 
became so popular that even Buddhists and Jainas 
adopted these beliefs.
Bhakti in South India –  
Nayanars and Alvars
The seventh to ninth centuries saw the emergence of 
new religious movements, led by the Nayanars (saints 
devoted to Shiva) and Alvars (saints devoted to Vishnu) 
who came from all castes including those considered 
“untouchable” like the Pulaiyar and the Panars. They 
were sharply critical of the Buddhists and Jainas 
and preached ardent love of Shiva or Vishnu as the 
path to salvation. They drew upon the ideals of love 
and heroism as found in the Sangam literature (the 
earliest example of Tamil literature, composed during 
the early centuries of the Common Era) and blended 
them with the values of bhakti. The Nayanars and 
Alvars went from place to place composing exquisite 
poems in praise of the deities enshrined in the villages 
they visited, and set them to music.
You can observe 
this process of 
local myths and 
legends receiving 
wider acceptance 
even today. Can 
you find some 
examples 
around you? 
Fig. 1
A page from a south 
Indian manuscript of 
the Bhagavad Gita.
?
Page 3


61
DEVOTIONAL PATHS 
TO THE DIVINE
Y
ou may have seen people perform rituals of  
worship, or singing ,  or , 
or even repeating the name of God in silence, and 
noticed that some of them are moved to tears. Such 
intense devotion or love of God is the legacy of various 
since the eighth century.
The Idea of a Supreme God
Before large kingdoms emerged, different groups                
of people worshipped their own gods and goddesses. 
As people were brought together through the growth 
of towns, trade and empires, new ideas began to 
develop. The idea that all living things pass through 
countless cycles of birth and rebirth performing good 
deeds and bad came to be widely accepted. Similarly, 
the idea that all human beings are not equal even at 
birth gained ground during this period. The belief that 
social privileges came from birth in a “noble” family or 
a “high” caste was the subject of many learned texts.
Many people were uneasy with such ideas and 
turned to the teachings of the Buddha or the Jainas 
according to which it was possible to overcome social 
differences and break the cycle of rebirth through 
personal effort. Others felt attracted to the idea of a 
Supreme God who could deliver humans from such 
bondage if approached with devotion (or bhakti). 
This idea, advocated in the  grew in 
popularity in the early centuries of the Common Era.  
DEVOTIONAL PATHS 
TO THE DIVINE
The beginning of 
Bhakti
Worship of certain 
deities, which 
became a central 
feature of later 
Hinduism, gained in 
importance. These 
deities included 
Shiva, Vishnu, and 
goddesses such as 
Durga. These deities 
were worshipped 
through Bhakti, an 
idea that became 
very popular at 
this time. Bhakti is 
generally understood 
as a person’s 
devotion to his or 
her chosen deity. 
Anybody, whether 
rich or poor, belonging 
to the so-called ‘high’ 
or ‘low’ castes, man 
or woman, could 
follow the path of 
Bhakti. The idea of 
Bhakti is present in 
the Bhagavad Gita, a 
sacred book of  
the Hindus. 
62
Shiva, Vishnu and 
Durga as supreme 
deities came to            
be worshipped 
through elaborate 
rituals. At the 
same time, gods 
and goddesses 
worshipped in 
different areas 
c a m e t o b e 
identified with 
Shiva, Vishnu 
or Durga. In the 
process, local myths and legends became a part of the 
Puranic stories, and methods of worship recommended 
in the Puranas were introduced into the local cults. 
Eventually the Puranas also laid down that it was 
possible for devotees to receive the grace of God 
regardless of their caste status. The idea of bhakti 
became so popular that even Buddhists and Jainas 
adopted these beliefs.
Bhakti in South India –  
Nayanars and Alvars
The seventh to ninth centuries saw the emergence of 
new religious movements, led by the Nayanars (saints 
devoted to Shiva) and Alvars (saints devoted to Vishnu) 
who came from all castes including those considered 
“untouchable” like the Pulaiyar and the Panars. They 
were sharply critical of the Buddhists and Jainas 
and preached ardent love of Shiva or Vishnu as the 
path to salvation. They drew upon the ideals of love 
and heroism as found in the Sangam literature (the 
earliest example of Tamil literature, composed during 
the early centuries of the Common Era) and blended 
them with the values of bhakti. The Nayanars and 
Alvars went from place to place composing exquisite 
poems in praise of the deities enshrined in the villages 
they visited, and set them to music.
You can observe 
this process of 
local myths and 
legends receiving 
wider acceptance 
even today. Can 
you find some 
examples 
around you? 
Fig. 1
A page from a south 
Indian manuscript of 
the Bhagavad Gita.
?
63
DEVOTIONAL PATHS 
TO THE DIVINE
Nayanars and Alvars
There were 63 Nayanars, who belonged to different 
social backgrounds, such as potters, “untouchable” 
workers, peasants, hunters, soldiers, Brahmanas and 
chiefs. The best known among them were Appar, 
Sambandar, Sundarar and Manikkavasagar. There are 
two sets of compilations of their songs – Tevaram and 
Tiruvacakam. 
There were 12 Alvars, who came from equally  
divergent backgrounds, the best known being 
Periyalvar, his daughter Andal, Tondaradippodi Alvar 
and Nammalvar. Their songs were compiled in the Divya 
Prabandham.
Between the tenth and twelfth centuries, the Chola 
and Pandya kings built elaborate temples around many 
of the shrines visited by the saint-poets, strengthening 
the links between the bhakti tradition and temple 
worship. This was also the time when their poems 
were compiled. Besides, hagiographies or religious 
biographies of the Alvars and Nayanars were also 
composed. Today we use these texts as sources for 
writing histories of the bhakti tradition. 
The devotee and the Lord
This is a composition of Manikkavasagar: 
How does the poet describe his relationship                   
with the deity? 
Hagiography 
?
Fig. 2
A bronze image of 
Manikkavasagar.
Page 4


61
DEVOTIONAL PATHS 
TO THE DIVINE
Y
ou may have seen people perform rituals of  
worship, or singing ,  or , 
or even repeating the name of God in silence, and 
noticed that some of them are moved to tears. Such 
intense devotion or love of God is the legacy of various 
since the eighth century.
The Idea of a Supreme God
Before large kingdoms emerged, different groups                
of people worshipped their own gods and goddesses. 
As people were brought together through the growth 
of towns, trade and empires, new ideas began to 
develop. The idea that all living things pass through 
countless cycles of birth and rebirth performing good 
deeds and bad came to be widely accepted. Similarly, 
the idea that all human beings are not equal even at 
birth gained ground during this period. The belief that 
social privileges came from birth in a “noble” family or 
a “high” caste was the subject of many learned texts.
Many people were uneasy with such ideas and 
turned to the teachings of the Buddha or the Jainas 
according to which it was possible to overcome social 
differences and break the cycle of rebirth through 
personal effort. Others felt attracted to the idea of a 
Supreme God who could deliver humans from such 
bondage if approached with devotion (or bhakti). 
This idea, advocated in the  grew in 
popularity in the early centuries of the Common Era.  
DEVOTIONAL PATHS 
TO THE DIVINE
The beginning of 
Bhakti
Worship of certain 
deities, which 
became a central 
feature of later 
Hinduism, gained in 
importance. These 
deities included 
Shiva, Vishnu, and 
goddesses such as 
Durga. These deities 
were worshipped 
through Bhakti, an 
idea that became 
very popular at 
this time. Bhakti is 
generally understood 
as a person’s 
devotion to his or 
her chosen deity. 
Anybody, whether 
rich or poor, belonging 
to the so-called ‘high’ 
or ‘low’ castes, man 
or woman, could 
follow the path of 
Bhakti. The idea of 
Bhakti is present in 
the Bhagavad Gita, a 
sacred book of  
the Hindus. 
62
Shiva, Vishnu and 
Durga as supreme 
deities came to            
be worshipped 
through elaborate 
rituals. At the 
same time, gods 
and goddesses 
worshipped in 
different areas 
c a m e t o b e 
identified with 
Shiva, Vishnu 
or Durga. In the 
process, local myths and legends became a part of the 
Puranic stories, and methods of worship recommended 
in the Puranas were introduced into the local cults. 
Eventually the Puranas also laid down that it was 
possible for devotees to receive the grace of God 
regardless of their caste status. The idea of bhakti 
became so popular that even Buddhists and Jainas 
adopted these beliefs.
Bhakti in South India –  
Nayanars and Alvars
The seventh to ninth centuries saw the emergence of 
new religious movements, led by the Nayanars (saints 
devoted to Shiva) and Alvars (saints devoted to Vishnu) 
who came from all castes including those considered 
“untouchable” like the Pulaiyar and the Panars. They 
were sharply critical of the Buddhists and Jainas 
and preached ardent love of Shiva or Vishnu as the 
path to salvation. They drew upon the ideals of love 
and heroism as found in the Sangam literature (the 
earliest example of Tamil literature, composed during 
the early centuries of the Common Era) and blended 
them with the values of bhakti. The Nayanars and 
Alvars went from place to place composing exquisite 
poems in praise of the deities enshrined in the villages 
they visited, and set them to music.
You can observe 
this process of 
local myths and 
legends receiving 
wider acceptance 
even today. Can 
you find some 
examples 
around you? 
Fig. 1
A page from a south 
Indian manuscript of 
the Bhagavad Gita.
?
63
DEVOTIONAL PATHS 
TO THE DIVINE
Nayanars and Alvars
There were 63 Nayanars, who belonged to different 
social backgrounds, such as potters, “untouchable” 
workers, peasants, hunters, soldiers, Brahmanas and 
chiefs. The best known among them were Appar, 
Sambandar, Sundarar and Manikkavasagar. There are 
two sets of compilations of their songs – Tevaram and 
Tiruvacakam. 
There were 12 Alvars, who came from equally  
divergent backgrounds, the best known being 
Periyalvar, his daughter Andal, Tondaradippodi Alvar 
and Nammalvar. Their songs were compiled in the Divya 
Prabandham.
Between the tenth and twelfth centuries, the Chola 
and Pandya kings built elaborate temples around many 
of the shrines visited by the saint-poets, strengthening 
the links between the bhakti tradition and temple 
worship. This was also the time when their poems 
were compiled. Besides, hagiographies or religious 
biographies of the Alvars and Nayanars were also 
composed. Today we use these texts as sources for 
writing histories of the bhakti tradition. 
The devotee and the Lord
This is a composition of Manikkavasagar: 
How does the poet describe his relationship                   
with the deity? 
Hagiography 
?
Fig. 2
A bronze image of 
Manikkavasagar.
64
?
Philosophy and Bhakti 
of India, was born in Kerala in the eighth century. 
He was an advocate of Advaita or the doctrine of 
the oneness of the individual soul and the Supreme 
God which is the Ultimate Reality. He taught that 
Brahman, the only or Ultimate Reality, was formless 
and without any attributes. He considered the world 
around us to be an illusion or , and preached 
renunciation of the world and adoption of the path of 
knowledge to understand the true nature of Brahman 
and attain salvation.  
Ramanuja, born in Tamil Nadu in the eleventh 
century, was deeply influenced by the Alvars. 
According to him the best means of attaining 
salvation was through intense devotion to Vishnu. 
Vishnu in His grace helps the devotee to attain the 
bliss of union with Him. He propounded the doctrine 
even when united with the Supreme God remained 
distinct. Ramanuja’s doctrine greatly inspired the 
new strand of bhakti which developed in north  
India subsequently.  
Basavanna’s Virashaivism
We noted earlier the connection between the Tamil 
bhakti movement and temple worship. This in turn 
led to a reaction that is best represented in the 
Virashaiva movement initiated by Basavanna and his 
companions like Allama Prabhu and Akkamahadevi. 
This movement began in Karnataka in the  
mid-twelfth century. The Virashaivas argued strongly 
for the equality of all human beings and against 
Brahmanical ideas about caste and the treatment of 
women. They were also against all forms of ritual and 
idol worship. 
Try and find out 
more about the 
ideas of Shankara 
or Ramanuja.
Page 5


61
DEVOTIONAL PATHS 
TO THE DIVINE
Y
ou may have seen people perform rituals of  
worship, or singing ,  or , 
or even repeating the name of God in silence, and 
noticed that some of them are moved to tears. Such 
intense devotion or love of God is the legacy of various 
since the eighth century.
The Idea of a Supreme God
Before large kingdoms emerged, different groups                
of people worshipped their own gods and goddesses. 
As people were brought together through the growth 
of towns, trade and empires, new ideas began to 
develop. The idea that all living things pass through 
countless cycles of birth and rebirth performing good 
deeds and bad came to be widely accepted. Similarly, 
the idea that all human beings are not equal even at 
birth gained ground during this period. The belief that 
social privileges came from birth in a “noble” family or 
a “high” caste was the subject of many learned texts.
Many people were uneasy with such ideas and 
turned to the teachings of the Buddha or the Jainas 
according to which it was possible to overcome social 
differences and break the cycle of rebirth through 
personal effort. Others felt attracted to the idea of a 
Supreme God who could deliver humans from such 
bondage if approached with devotion (or bhakti). 
This idea, advocated in the  grew in 
popularity in the early centuries of the Common Era.  
DEVOTIONAL PATHS 
TO THE DIVINE
The beginning of 
Bhakti
Worship of certain 
deities, which 
became a central 
feature of later 
Hinduism, gained in 
importance. These 
deities included 
Shiva, Vishnu, and 
goddesses such as 
Durga. These deities 
were worshipped 
through Bhakti, an 
idea that became 
very popular at 
this time. Bhakti is 
generally understood 
as a person’s 
devotion to his or 
her chosen deity. 
Anybody, whether 
rich or poor, belonging 
to the so-called ‘high’ 
or ‘low’ castes, man 
or woman, could 
follow the path of 
Bhakti. The idea of 
Bhakti is present in 
the Bhagavad Gita, a 
sacred book of  
the Hindus. 
62
Shiva, Vishnu and 
Durga as supreme 
deities came to            
be worshipped 
through elaborate 
rituals. At the 
same time, gods 
and goddesses 
worshipped in 
different areas 
c a m e t o b e 
identified with 
Shiva, Vishnu 
or Durga. In the 
process, local myths and legends became a part of the 
Puranic stories, and methods of worship recommended 
in the Puranas were introduced into the local cults. 
Eventually the Puranas also laid down that it was 
possible for devotees to receive the grace of God 
regardless of their caste status. The idea of bhakti 
became so popular that even Buddhists and Jainas 
adopted these beliefs.
Bhakti in South India –  
Nayanars and Alvars
The seventh to ninth centuries saw the emergence of 
new religious movements, led by the Nayanars (saints 
devoted to Shiva) and Alvars (saints devoted to Vishnu) 
who came from all castes including those considered 
“untouchable” like the Pulaiyar and the Panars. They 
were sharply critical of the Buddhists and Jainas 
and preached ardent love of Shiva or Vishnu as the 
path to salvation. They drew upon the ideals of love 
and heroism as found in the Sangam literature (the 
earliest example of Tamil literature, composed during 
the early centuries of the Common Era) and blended 
them with the values of bhakti. The Nayanars and 
Alvars went from place to place composing exquisite 
poems in praise of the deities enshrined in the villages 
they visited, and set them to music.
You can observe 
this process of 
local myths and 
legends receiving 
wider acceptance 
even today. Can 
you find some 
examples 
around you? 
Fig. 1
A page from a south 
Indian manuscript of 
the Bhagavad Gita.
?
63
DEVOTIONAL PATHS 
TO THE DIVINE
Nayanars and Alvars
There were 63 Nayanars, who belonged to different 
social backgrounds, such as potters, “untouchable” 
workers, peasants, hunters, soldiers, Brahmanas and 
chiefs. The best known among them were Appar, 
Sambandar, Sundarar and Manikkavasagar. There are 
two sets of compilations of their songs – Tevaram and 
Tiruvacakam. 
There were 12 Alvars, who came from equally  
divergent backgrounds, the best known being 
Periyalvar, his daughter Andal, Tondaradippodi Alvar 
and Nammalvar. Their songs were compiled in the Divya 
Prabandham.
Between the tenth and twelfth centuries, the Chola 
and Pandya kings built elaborate temples around many 
of the shrines visited by the saint-poets, strengthening 
the links between the bhakti tradition and temple 
worship. This was also the time when their poems 
were compiled. Besides, hagiographies or religious 
biographies of the Alvars and Nayanars were also 
composed. Today we use these texts as sources for 
writing histories of the bhakti tradition. 
The devotee and the Lord
This is a composition of Manikkavasagar: 
How does the poet describe his relationship                   
with the deity? 
Hagiography 
?
Fig. 2
A bronze image of 
Manikkavasagar.
64
?
Philosophy and Bhakti 
of India, was born in Kerala in the eighth century. 
He was an advocate of Advaita or the doctrine of 
the oneness of the individual soul and the Supreme 
God which is the Ultimate Reality. He taught that 
Brahman, the only or Ultimate Reality, was formless 
and without any attributes. He considered the world 
around us to be an illusion or , and preached 
renunciation of the world and adoption of the path of 
knowledge to understand the true nature of Brahman 
and attain salvation.  
Ramanuja, born in Tamil Nadu in the eleventh 
century, was deeply influenced by the Alvars. 
According to him the best means of attaining 
salvation was through intense devotion to Vishnu. 
Vishnu in His grace helps the devotee to attain the 
bliss of union with Him. He propounded the doctrine 
even when united with the Supreme God remained 
distinct. Ramanuja’s doctrine greatly inspired the 
new strand of bhakti which developed in north  
India subsequently.  
Basavanna’s Virashaivism
We noted earlier the connection between the Tamil 
bhakti movement and temple worship. This in turn 
led to a reaction that is best represented in the 
Virashaiva movement initiated by Basavanna and his 
companions like Allama Prabhu and Akkamahadevi. 
This movement began in Karnataka in the  
mid-twelfth century. The Virashaivas argued strongly 
for the equality of all human beings and against 
Brahmanical ideas about caste and the treatment of 
women. They were also against all forms of ritual and 
idol worship. 
Try and find out 
more about the 
ideas of Shankara 
or Ramanuja.
65
DEVOTIONAL PATHS 
TO THE DIVINE
?
Virashaiva vachanas
These are vachanas or sayings attributed to Basavanna:
The rich,
Will make temples for Shiva.
What shall I, 
A poor man,
Do?
My legs are pillars,
The body the shrine,
The head a cupola
Of gold.
Listen, O Lord of the meeting rivers,
Things standing shall fall,
But the moving ever shall stay.
What is the temple that Basavanna is offering to God?
Bhakti Movement in the Decean
From the thirteenth to the seventeenth centuries, 
Maharashtra saw a great number of saint-poets, whose 
songs in simple Marathi continue to inspire people. 
The most important among them were Dnyaneshwar 
(Gyaneshwar), Namdev, Eknath and Tukaram as well 
as women like Sakhubai and the family of Chokhamela, 
who belonged to the “untouchable” Mahar caste. This 
regional tradition of bhakti focused on the Vitthala (a 
form of Vishnu) temple in Pandharpur, as well as on 
the notion of a personal god residing in the hearts of 
all people. 
These saint-poets rejected all forms of ritualism, 
outward display of piety and social differences 
based on birth. In fact, they even rejected the idea of 
renunciation and preferred to live with their families, 
earning their livelihood like any other person, while 
humbly serving fellow human beings in need. A new 
humanist idea emerged as they insisted that bhakti