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Directions : Read the following passage carefully and answer the questions given after the passage. Certain words/phrases have been printed in bold to help you locate them while answering some of the questions.States are highly competitive actors and the competitiveness that exists between them has become increasingly intensified as the world order has become ever more globalised. In order to be successful and prosperous in this competitive environ­ment states require access to reliable intelligence that reveals the strengths and weaknesses of their competitors. Knowledge is power, after all.A significant amount of intelligence collected by states is from sources which are publicly available. Espionage is a prevalent method of gathering intelligence and describes 'the consciously deceitful collection of information, ordered by a govern­ment or organisation hostile to or suspicious of those the information concerns, accomplished by humans unauthorised by the target to do the collecting'. Espio­nage, then, is the unauthorised collection of non-publicly available information. The act of espionage can be committed through various methods. In its traditional conception, espionage describes the practice whereby a state dispatches an agent into the physical territory of another state in order to access and obtain confidential information. States have, however, exploited technological developments in order to devise more effective methods through which to conduct espionage. Since the emergence of vessels, aeroplanes and celestial bodies, the sea, the skies and outer space have all been used as platforms to engage in (often electronic) surveillance of adversaries; that is, to commit espionage from afar. It therefore comes as no surprise that since its creation cyberspace has also been harnessed as a medium through which to commit espionage. Indeed, the exploitation of cyberspace for the purpose of espionage has emerged as a particularly attractive method to acquire confidential information because of the large amount of information that is now stored in cyberspace and because cyberspace affords a considerable degree of ano­nymity to perpetrators of espionage and is thus a relatively risk free enterprise.Unsurprisingly, espionage has 'metastasised' since the emergence of cyber­space and reports suggest that cyber espionage projects are now prevalent. As an illustration, in February 2013 the Mandiant Report identified China as a persis­tent perpetrator of cyber espionage. In fact, the report claims that a cyber espio­nage entity known as Unit 61398 has been specifically created by the Chinese gov­ernment and is formally incorporated into the Chinese People's Liberation Army. The Report suggests that Unit 61398 is responsible for organising and instigating a massive cyber espionage campaign against other states and non-state actors, seek­ing to exploit vulnerable computer systems in order to access sensitive and confi­dential information with the aim of bolstering China's position in the international political and economic order. Only four months later in June 2013 cyber espionage was again thrust firmly into the international spotlight when Edward Snowden, a former contractor for the US National Security Agency (NSA), disclosed through WikiLeaks thousands of classified docu­ments to several media entities including The Guardian and The New York Times. The documents were alleged to reveal that the NSA had been engaged in a global surveil­lance programme at the heart of which was the collection of confidential information that was being stored in or transmitted through cyberspace. In particular, the allega­tions were that the NSA had been engaged in a sustained and widespread campaign of intercepting and monitoring private email and telephone communications. This cyber espionage allegedly targeted numerous state and non-state actors, including officials of international organisations such as the EU, state organs (including heads of state such as German Chancellor Angela Merkel and Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Olmut), religious leaders (the Pope), companies (such as the Brazilian oil company Petrobas), non-gov­ernmental organisations (including UNICEF and Médecins du Monde) and individuals suspected of being involved in international terrorism. In light of the scale and intensity of cyber espionage in contemporary international relations commentators have claimed that 'cyber espionage is more dangerous than you think'. Important questions are now rightly being raised as to whether cyber espionage is a permissible cat-and-mouse exercise that is part of the ebb and flow of a competi­tive international environment, or whether it is a pernicious practice that undermines international cooperation and is prohibited by international law.The importance of intelligence-gathering in the contem­porary world order cannot be denied. However, one must distinguish between intelligence-gathering from publicly available sources and intelligence-gathering from private, unau­thorised sources, namely espionage. Intelligence gathering that relies upon open source information is legally unproblematic. One must also distinguish between authorised and unauthorised intelligence-gathering. As espionage is a practice that is by definition committed in secret, and where states overwhelmingly refuse to admit responsibility for such conduct let alone justify it as acceptable under international law, there is no customary 'espionage exception' to the principles of territorial sovereignty.What, according to the passage, is the primary reason for the development of cyber-espionage?A. The offenders of the act of espionage can hide their true personality if they use cyberspace as the means to conduct the espionage thereby reducing the threat of identification.B. Cyberspace provides for an infinite space for the storage of information.C. Cyberspace makes all sensitive and confidential information publicly available thereby making the access of information easier.a)Only (A)b)Only (C)c)Both (A) and (B)d)Both (A) and (C)e)All the three (A), (B) and (C)Correct answer is option 'C'. Can you explain this answer? for CAT 2024 is part of CAT preparation. The Question and answers have been prepared according to the CAT exam syllabus. Information about Directions : Read the following passage carefully and answer the questions given after the passage. Certain words/phrases have been printed in bold to help you locate them while answering some of the questions.States are highly competitive actors and the competitiveness that exists between them has become increasingly intensified as the world order has become ever more globalised. In order to be successful and prosperous in this competitive environ­ment states require access to reliable intelligence that reveals the strengths and weaknesses of their competitors. Knowledge is power, after all.A significant amount of intelligence collected by states is from sources which are publicly available. Espionage is a prevalent method of gathering intelligence and describes 'the consciously deceitful collection of information, ordered by a govern­ment or organisation hostile to or suspicious of those the information concerns, accomplished by humans unauthorised by the target to do the collecting'. Espio­nage, then, is the unauthorised collection of non-publicly available information. The act of espionage can be committed through various methods. In its traditional conception, espionage describes the practice whereby a state dispatches an agent into the physical territory of another state in order to access and obtain confidential information. States have, however, exploited technological developments in order to devise more effective methods through which to conduct espionage. Since the emergence of vessels, aeroplanes and celestial bodies, the sea, the skies and outer space have all been used as platforms to engage in (often electronic) surveillance of adversaries; that is, to commit espionage from afar. It therefore comes as no surprise that since its creation cyberspace has also been harnessed as a medium through which to commit espionage. Indeed, the exploitation of cyberspace for the purpose of espionage has emerged as a particularly attractive method to acquire confidential information because of the large amount of information that is now stored in cyberspace and because cyberspace affords a considerable degree of ano­nymity to perpetrators of espionage and is thus a relatively risk free enterprise.Unsurprisingly, espionage has 'metastasised' since the emergence of cyber­space and reports suggest that cyber espionage projects are now prevalent. As an illustration, in February 2013 the Mandiant Report identified China as a persis­tent perpetrator of cyber espionage. In fact, the report claims that a cyber espio­nage entity known as Unit 61398 has been specifically created by the Chinese gov­ernment and is formally incorporated into the Chinese People's Liberation Army. The Report suggests that Unit 61398 is responsible for organising and instigating a massive cyber espionage campaign against other states and non-state actors, seek­ing to exploit vulnerable computer systems in order to access sensitive and confi­dential information with the aim of bolstering China's position in the international political and economic order. Only four months later in June 2013 cyber espionage was again thrust firmly into the international spotlight when Edward Snowden, a former contractor for the US National Security Agency (NSA), disclosed through WikiLeaks thousands of classified docu­ments to several media entities including The Guardian and The New York Times. The documents were alleged to reveal that the NSA had been engaged in a global surveil­lance programme at the heart of which was the collection of confidential information that was being stored in or transmitted through cyberspace. In particular, the allega­tions were that the NSA had been engaged in a sustained and widespread campaign of intercepting and monitoring private email and telephone communications. This cyber espionage allegedly targeted numerous state and non-state actors, including officials of international organisations such as the EU, state organs (including heads of state such as German Chancellor Angela Merkel and Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Olmut), religious leaders (the Pope), companies (such as the Brazilian oil company Petrobas), non-gov­ernmental organisations (including UNICEF and Médecins du Monde) and individuals suspected of being involved in international terrorism. In light of the scale and intensity of cyber espionage in contemporary international relations commentators have claimed that 'cyber espionage is more dangerous than you think'. Important questions are now rightly being raised as to whether cyber espionage is a permissible cat-and-mouse exercise that is part of the ebb and flow of a competi­tive international environment, or whether it is a pernicious practice that undermines international cooperation and is prohibited by international law.The importance of intelligence-gathering in the contem­porary world order cannot be denied. However, one must distinguish between intelligence-gathering from publicly available sources and intelligence-gathering from private, unau­thorised sources, namely espionage. Intelligence gathering that relies upon open source information is legally unproblematic. One must also distinguish between authorised and unauthorised intelligence-gathering. As espionage is a practice that is by definition committed in secret, and where states overwhelmingly refuse to admit responsibility for such conduct let alone justify it as acceptable under international law, there is no customary 'espionage exception' to the principles of territorial sovereignty.What, according to the passage, is the primary reason for the development of cyber-espionage?A. The offenders of the act of espionage can hide their true personality if they use cyberspace as the means to conduct the espionage thereby reducing the threat of identification.B. Cyberspace provides for an infinite space for the storage of information.C. Cyberspace makes all sensitive and confidential information publicly available thereby making the access of information easier.a)Only (A)b)Only (C)c)Both (A) and (B)d)Both (A) and (C)e)All the three (A), (B) and (C)Correct answer is option 'C'. Can you explain this answer? covers all topics & solutions for CAT 2024 Exam. Find important definitions, questions, meanings, examples, exercises and tests below for Directions : Read the following passage carefully and answer the questions given after the passage. Certain words/phrases have been printed in bold to help you locate them while answering some of the questions.States are highly competitive actors and the competitiveness that exists between them has become increasingly intensified as the world order has become ever more globalised. In order to be successful and prosperous in this competitive environ­ment states require access to reliable intelligence that reveals the strengths and weaknesses of their competitors. Knowledge is power, after all.A significant amount of intelligence collected by states is from sources which are publicly available. Espionage is a prevalent method of gathering intelligence and describes 'the consciously deceitful collection of information, ordered by a govern­ment or organisation hostile to or suspicious of those the information concerns, accomplished by humans unauthorised by the target to do the collecting'. Espio­nage, then, is the unauthorised collection of non-publicly available information. The act of espionage can be committed through various methods. In its traditional conception, espionage describes the practice whereby a state dispatches an agent into the physical territory of another state in order to access and obtain confidential information. States have, however, exploited technological developments in order to devise more effective methods through which to conduct espionage. Since the emergence of vessels, aeroplanes and celestial bodies, the sea, the skies and outer space have all been used as platforms to engage in (often electronic) surveillance of adversaries; that is, to commit espionage from afar. It therefore comes as no surprise that since its creation cyberspace has also been harnessed as a medium through which to commit espionage. Indeed, the exploitation of cyberspace for the purpose of espionage has emerged as a particularly attractive method to acquire confidential information because of the large amount of information that is now stored in cyberspace and because cyberspace affords a considerable degree of ano­nymity to perpetrators of espionage and is thus a relatively risk free enterprise.Unsurprisingly, espionage has 'metastasised' since the emergence of cyber­space and reports suggest that cyber espionage projects are now prevalent. As an illustration, in February 2013 the Mandiant Report identified China as a persis­tent perpetrator of cyber espionage. In fact, the report claims that a cyber espio­nage entity known as Unit 61398 has been specifically created by the Chinese gov­ernment and is formally incorporated into the Chinese People's Liberation Army. The Report suggests that Unit 61398 is responsible for organising and instigating a massive cyber espionage campaign against other states and non-state actors, seek­ing to exploit vulnerable computer systems in order to access sensitive and confi­dential information with the aim of bolstering China's position in the international political and economic order. Only four months later in June 2013 cyber espionage was again thrust firmly into the international spotlight when Edward Snowden, a former contractor for the US National Security Agency (NSA), disclosed through WikiLeaks thousands of classified docu­ments to several media entities including The Guardian and The New York Times. The documents were alleged to reveal that the NSA had been engaged in a global surveil­lance programme at the heart of which was the collection of confidential information that was being stored in or transmitted through cyberspace. In particular, the allega­tions were that the NSA had been engaged in a sustained and widespread campaign of intercepting and monitoring private email and telephone communications. This cyber espionage allegedly targeted numerous state and non-state actors, including officials of international organisations such as the EU, state organs (including heads of state such as German Chancellor Angela Merkel and Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Olmut), religious leaders (the Pope), companies (such as the Brazilian oil company Petrobas), non-gov­ernmental organisations (including UNICEF and Médecins du Monde) and individuals suspected of being involved in international terrorism. In light of the scale and intensity of cyber espionage in contemporary international relations commentators have claimed that 'cyber espionage is more dangerous than you think'. Important questions are now rightly being raised as to whether cyber espionage is a permissible cat-and-mouse exercise that is part of the ebb and flow of a competi­tive international environment, or whether it is a pernicious practice that undermines international cooperation and is prohibited by international law.The importance of intelligence-gathering in the contem­porary world order cannot be denied. However, one must distinguish between intelligence-gathering from publicly available sources and intelligence-gathering from private, unau­thorised sources, namely espionage. Intelligence gathering that relies upon open source information is legally unproblematic. One must also distinguish between authorised and unauthorised intelligence-gathering. As espionage is a practice that is by definition committed in secret, and where states overwhelmingly refuse to admit responsibility for such conduct let alone justify it as acceptable under international law, there is no customary 'espionage exception' to the principles of territorial sovereignty.What, according to the passage, is the primary reason for the development of cyber-espionage?A. The offenders of the act of espionage can hide their true personality if they use cyberspace as the means to conduct the espionage thereby reducing the threat of identification.B. Cyberspace provides for an infinite space for the storage of information.C. Cyberspace makes all sensitive and confidential information publicly available thereby making the access of information easier.a)Only (A)b)Only (C)c)Both (A) and (B)d)Both (A) and (C)e)All the three (A), (B) and (C)Correct answer is option 'C'. Can you explain this answer?.

Solutions for Directions : Read the following passage carefully and answer the questions given after the passage. Certain words/phrases have been printed in bold to help you locate them while answering some of the questions.States are highly competitive actors and the competitiveness that exists between them has become increasingly intensified as the world order has become ever more globalised. In order to be successful and prosperous in this competitive environ­ment states require access to reliable intelligence that reveals the strengths and weaknesses of their competitors. Knowledge is power, after all.A significant amount of intelligence collected by states is from sources which are publicly available. Espionage is a prevalent method of gathering intelligence and describes 'the consciously deceitful collection of information, ordered by a govern­ment or organisation hostile to or suspicious of those the information concerns, accomplished by humans unauthorised by the target to do the collecting'. Espio­nage, then, is the unauthorised collection of non-publicly available information. The act of espionage can be committed through various methods. In its traditional conception, espionage describes the practice whereby a state dispatches an agent into the physical territory of another state in order to access and obtain confidential information. States have, however, exploited technological developments in order to devise more effective methods through which to conduct espionage. Since the emergence of vessels, aeroplanes and celestial bodies, the sea, the skies and outer space have all been used as platforms to engage in (often electronic) surveillance of adversaries; that is, to commit espionage from afar. It therefore comes as no surprise that since its creation cyberspace has also been harnessed as a medium through which to commit espionage. Indeed, the exploitation of cyberspace for the purpose of espionage has emerged as a particularly attractive method to acquire confidential information because of the large amount of information that is now stored in cyberspace and because cyberspace affords a considerable degree of ano­nymity to perpetrators of espionage and is thus a relatively risk free enterprise.Unsurprisingly, espionage has 'metastasised' since the emergence of cyber­space and reports suggest that cyber espionage projects are now prevalent. As an illustration, in February 2013 the Mandiant Report identified China as a persis­tent perpetrator of cyber espionage. In fact, the report claims that a cyber espio­nage entity known as Unit 61398 has been specifically created by the Chinese gov­ernment and is formally incorporated into the Chinese People's Liberation Army. The Report suggests that Unit 61398 is responsible for organising and instigating a massive cyber espionage campaign against other states and non-state actors, seek­ing to exploit vulnerable computer systems in order to access sensitive and confi­dential information with the aim of bolstering China's position in the international political and economic order. Only four months later in June 2013 cyber espionage was again thrust firmly into the international spotlight when Edward Snowden, a former contractor for the US National Security Agency (NSA), disclosed through WikiLeaks thousands of classified docu­ments to several media entities including The Guardian and The New York Times. The documents were alleged to reveal that the NSA had been engaged in a global surveil­lance programme at the heart of which was the collection of confidential information that was being stored in or transmitted through cyberspace. In particular, the allega­tions were that the NSA had been engaged in a sustained and widespread campaign of intercepting and monitoring private email and telephone communications. This cyber espionage allegedly targeted numerous state and non-state actors, including officials of international organisations such as the EU, state organs (including heads of state such as German Chancellor Angela Merkel and Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Olmut), religious leaders (the Pope), companies (such as the Brazilian oil company Petrobas), non-gov­ernmental organisations (including UNICEF and Médecins du Monde) and individuals suspected of being involved in international terrorism. In light of the scale and intensity of cyber espionage in contemporary international relations commentators have claimed that 'cyber espionage is more dangerous than you think'. Important questions are now rightly being raised as to whether cyber espionage is a permissible cat-and-mouse exercise that is part of the ebb and flow of a competi­tive international environment, or whether it is a pernicious practice that undermines international cooperation and is prohibited by international law.The importance of intelligence-gathering in the contem­porary world order cannot be denied. However, one must distinguish between intelligence-gathering from publicly available sources and intelligence-gathering from private, unau­thorised sources, namely espionage. Intelligence gathering that relies upon open source information is legally unproblematic. One must also distinguish between authorised and unauthorised intelligence-gathering. As espionage is a practice that is by definition committed in secret, and where states overwhelmingly refuse to admit responsibility for such conduct let alone justify it as acceptable under international law, there is no customary 'espionage exception' to the principles of territorial sovereignty.What, according to the passage, is the primary reason for the development of cyber-espionage?A. The offenders of the act of espionage can hide their true personality if they use cyberspace as the means to conduct the espionage thereby reducing the threat of identification.B. Cyberspace provides for an infinite space for the storage of information.C. Cyberspace makes all sensitive and confidential information publicly available thereby making the access of information easier.a)Only (A)b)Only (C)c)Both (A) and (B)d)Both (A) and (C)e)All the three (A), (B) and (C)Correct answer is option 'C'. Can you explain this answer? in English & in Hindi are available as part of our courses for CAT. 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Here you can find the meaning of Directions : Read the following passage carefully and answer the questions given after the passage. Certain words/phrases have been printed in bold to help you locate them while answering some of the questions.States are highly competitive actors and the competitiveness that exists between them has become increasingly intensified as the world order has become ever more globalised. In order to be successful and prosperous in this competitive environ­ment states require access to reliable intelligence that reveals the strengths and weaknesses of their competitors. Knowledge is power, after all.A significant amount of intelligence collected by states is from sources which are publicly available. Espionage is a prevalent method of gathering intelligence and describes 'the consciously deceitful collection of information, ordered by a govern­ment or organisation hostile to or suspicious of those the information concerns, accomplished by humans unauthorised by the target to do the collecting'. Espio­nage, then, is the unauthorised collection of non-publicly available information. The act of espionage can be committed through various methods. In its traditional conception, espionage describes the practice whereby a state dispatches an agent into the physical territory of another state in order to access and obtain confidential information. States have, however, exploited technological developments in order to devise more effective methods through which to conduct espionage. Since the emergence of vessels, aeroplanes and celestial bodies, the sea, the skies and outer space have all been used as platforms to engage in (often electronic) surveillance of adversaries; that is, to commit espionage from afar. It therefore comes as no surprise that since its creation cyberspace has also been harnessed as a medium through which to commit espionage. Indeed, the exploitation of cyberspace for the purpose of espionage has emerged as a particularly attractive method to acquire confidential information because of the large amount of information that is now stored in cyberspace and because cyberspace affords a considerable degree of ano­nymity to perpetrators of espionage and is thus a relatively risk free enterprise.Unsurprisingly, espionage has 'metastasised' since the emergence of cyber­space and reports suggest that cyber espionage projects are now prevalent. As an illustration, in February 2013 the Mandiant Report identified China as a persis­tent perpetrator of cyber espionage. In fact, the report claims that a cyber espio­nage entity known as Unit 61398 has been specifically created by the Chinese gov­ernment and is formally incorporated into the Chinese People's Liberation Army. The Report suggests that Unit 61398 is responsible for organising and instigating a massive cyber espionage campaign against other states and non-state actors, seek­ing to exploit vulnerable computer systems in order to access sensitive and confi­dential information with the aim of bolstering China's position in the international political and economic order. Only four months later in June 2013 cyber espionage was again thrust firmly into the international spotlight when Edward Snowden, a former contractor for the US National Security Agency (NSA), disclosed through WikiLeaks thousands of classified docu­ments to several media entities including The Guardian and The New York Times. The documents were alleged to reveal that the NSA had been engaged in a global surveil­lance programme at the heart of which was the collection of confidential information that was being stored in or transmitted through cyberspace. In particular, the allega­tions were that the NSA had been engaged in a sustained and widespread campaign of intercepting and monitoring private email and telephone communications. This cyber espionage allegedly targeted numerous state and non-state actors, including officials of international organisations such as the EU, state organs (including heads of state such as German Chancellor Angela Merkel and Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Olmut), religious leaders (the Pope), companies (such as the Brazilian oil company Petrobas), non-gov­ernmental organisations (including UNICEF and Médecins du Monde) and individuals suspected of being involved in international terrorism. In light of the scale and intensity of cyber espionage in contemporary international relations commentators have claimed that 'cyber espionage is more dangerous than you think'. Important questions are now rightly being raised as to whether cyber espionage is a permissible cat-and-mouse exercise that is part of the ebb and flow of a competi­tive international environment, or whether it is a pernicious practice that undermines international cooperation and is prohibited by international law.The importance of intelligence-gathering in the contem­porary world order cannot be denied. However, one must distinguish between intelligence-gathering from publicly available sources and intelligence-gathering from private, unau­thorised sources, namely espionage. Intelligence gathering that relies upon open source information is legally unproblematic. One must also distinguish between authorised and unauthorised intelligence-gathering. As espionage is a practice that is by definition committed in secret, and where states overwhelmingly refuse to admit responsibility for such conduct let alone justify it as acceptable under international law, there is no customary 'espionage exception' to the principles of territorial sovereignty.What, according to the passage, is the primary reason for the development of cyber-espionage?A. The offenders of the act of espionage can hide their true personality if they use cyberspace as the means to conduct the espionage thereby reducing the threat of identification.B. Cyberspace provides for an infinite space for the storage of information.C. Cyberspace makes all sensitive and confidential information publicly available thereby making the access of information easier.a)Only (A)b)Only (C)c)Both (A) and (B)d)Both (A) and (C)e)All the three (A), (B) and (C)Correct answer is option 'C'. Can you explain this answer? defined & explained in the simplest way possible. Besides giving the explanation of Directions : Read the following passage carefully and answer the questions given after the passage. Certain words/phrases have been printed in bold to help you locate them while answering some of the questions.States are highly competitive actors and the competitiveness that exists between them has become increasingly intensified as the world order has become ever more globalised. In order to be successful and prosperous in this competitive environ­ment states require access to reliable intelligence that reveals the strengths and weaknesses of their competitors. Knowledge is power, after all.A significant amount of intelligence collected by states is from sources which are publicly available. Espionage is a prevalent method of gathering intelligence and describes 'the consciously deceitful collection of information, ordered by a govern­ment or organisation hostile to or suspicious of those the information concerns, accomplished by humans unauthorised by the target to do the collecting'. Espio­nage, then, is the unauthorised collection of non-publicly available information. The act of espionage can be committed through various methods. In its traditional conception, espionage describes the practice whereby a state dispatches an agent into the physical territory of another state in order to access and obtain confidential information. States have, however, exploited technological developments in order to devise more effective methods through which to conduct espionage. Since the emergence of vessels, aeroplanes and celestial bodies, the sea, the skies and outer space have all been used as platforms to engage in (often electronic) surveillance of adversaries; that is, to commit espionage from afar. It therefore comes as no surprise that since its creation cyberspace has also been harnessed as a medium through which to commit espionage. Indeed, the exploitation of cyberspace for the purpose of espionage has emerged as a particularly attractive method to acquire confidential information because of the large amount of information that is now stored in cyberspace and because cyberspace affords a considerable degree of ano­nymity to perpetrators of espionage and is thus a relatively risk free enterprise.Unsurprisingly, espionage has 'metastasised' since the emergence of cyber­space and reports suggest that cyber espionage projects are now prevalent. As an illustration, in February 2013 the Mandiant Report identified China as a persis­tent perpetrator of cyber espionage. In fact, the report claims that a cyber espio­nage entity known as Unit 61398 has been specifically created by the Chinese gov­ernment and is formally incorporated into the Chinese People's Liberation Army. The Report suggests that Unit 61398 is responsible for organising and instigating a massive cyber espionage campaign against other states and non-state actors, seek­ing to exploit vulnerable computer systems in order to access sensitive and confi­dential information with the aim of bolstering China's position in the international political and economic order. Only four months later in June 2013 cyber espionage was again thrust firmly into the international spotlight when Edward Snowden, a former contractor for the US National Security Agency (NSA), disclosed through WikiLeaks thousands of classified docu­ments to several media entities including The Guardian and The New York Times. The documents were alleged to reveal that the NSA had been engaged in a global surveil­lance programme at the heart of which was the collection of confidential information that was being stored in or transmitted through cyberspace. In particular, the allega­tions were that the NSA had been engaged in a sustained and widespread campaign of intercepting and monitoring private email and telephone communications. This cyber espionage allegedly targeted numerous state and non-state actors, including officials of international organisations such as the EU, state organs (including heads of state such as German Chancellor Angela Merkel and Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Olmut), religious leaders (the Pope), companies (such as the Brazilian oil company Petrobas), non-gov­ernmental organisations (including UNICEF and Médecins du Monde) and individuals suspected of being involved in international terrorism. In light of the scale and intensity of cyber espionage in contemporary international relations commentators have claimed that 'cyber espionage is more dangerous than you think'. Important questions are now rightly being raised as to whether cyber espionage is a permissible cat-and-mouse exercise that is part of the ebb and flow of a competi­tive international environment, or whether it is a pernicious practice that undermines international cooperation and is prohibited by international law.The importance of intelligence-gathering in the contem­porary world order cannot be denied. However, one must distinguish between intelligence-gathering from publicly available sources and intelligence-gathering from private, unau­thorised sources, namely espionage. Intelligence gathering that relies upon open source information is legally unproblematic. One must also distinguish between authorised and unauthorised intelligence-gathering. As espionage is a practice that is by definition committed in secret, and where states overwhelmingly refuse to admit responsibility for such conduct let alone justify it as acceptable under international law, there is no customary 'espionage exception' to the principles of territorial sovereignty.What, according to the passage, is the primary reason for the development of cyber-espionage?A. The offenders of the act of espionage can hide their true personality if they use cyberspace as the means to conduct the espionage thereby reducing the threat of identification.B. Cyberspace provides for an infinite space for the storage of information.C. Cyberspace makes all sensitive and confidential information publicly available thereby making the access of information easier.a)Only (A)b)Only (C)c)Both (A) and (B)d)Both (A) and (C)e)All the three (A), (B) and (C)Correct answer is option 'C'. Can you explain this answer?, a detailed solution for Directions : Read the following passage carefully and answer the questions given after the passage. Certain words/phrases have been printed in bold to help you locate them while answering some of the questions.States are highly competitive actors and the competitiveness that exists between them has become increasingly intensified as the world order has become ever more globalised. In order to be successful and prosperous in this competitive environ­ment states require access to reliable intelligence that reveals the strengths and weaknesses of their competitors. Knowledge is power, after all.A significant amount of intelligence collected by states is from sources which are publicly available. Espionage is a prevalent method of gathering intelligence and describes 'the consciously deceitful collection of information, ordered by a govern­ment or organisation hostile to or suspicious of those the information concerns, accomplished by humans unauthorised by the target to do the collecting'. Espio­nage, then, is the unauthorised collection of non-publicly available information. The act of espionage can be committed through various methods. In its traditional conception, espionage describes the practice whereby a state dispatches an agent into the physical territory of another state in order to access and obtain confidential information. States have, however, exploited technological developments in order to devise more effective methods through which to conduct espionage. Since the emergence of vessels, aeroplanes and celestial bodies, the sea, the skies and outer space have all been used as platforms to engage in (often electronic) surveillance of adversaries; that is, to commit espionage from afar. It therefore comes as no surprise that since its creation cyberspace has also been harnessed as a medium through which to commit espionage. Indeed, the exploitation of cyberspace for the purpose of espionage has emerged as a particularly attractive method to acquire confidential information because of the large amount of information that is now stored in cyberspace and because cyberspace affords a considerable degree of ano­nymity to perpetrators of espionage and is thus a relatively risk free enterprise.Unsurprisingly, espionage has 'metastasised' since the emergence of cyber­space and reports suggest that cyber espionage projects are now prevalent. As an illustration, in February 2013 the Mandiant Report identified China as a persis­tent perpetrator of cyber espionage. In fact, the report claims that a cyber espio­nage entity known as Unit 61398 has been specifically created by the Chinese gov­ernment and is formally incorporated into the Chinese People's Liberation Army. The Report suggests that Unit 61398 is responsible for organising and instigating a massive cyber espionage campaign against other states and non-state actors, seek­ing to exploit vulnerable computer systems in order to access sensitive and confi­dential information with the aim of bolstering China's position in the international political and economic order. Only four months later in June 2013 cyber espionage was again thrust firmly into the international spotlight when Edward Snowden, a former contractor for the US National Security Agency (NSA), disclosed through WikiLeaks thousands of classified docu­ments to several media entities including The Guardian and The New York Times. The documents were alleged to reveal that the NSA had been engaged in a global surveil­lance programme at the heart of which was the collection of confidential information that was being stored in or transmitted through cyberspace. In particular, the allega­tions were that the NSA had been engaged in a sustained and widespread campaign of intercepting and monitoring private email and telephone communications. This cyber espionage allegedly targeted numerous state and non-state actors, including officials of international organisations such as the EU, state organs (including heads of state such as German Chancellor Angela Merkel and Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Olmut), religious leaders (the Pope), companies (such as the Brazilian oil company Petrobas), non-gov­ernmental organisations (including UNICEF and Médecins du Monde) and individuals suspected of being involved in international terrorism. In light of the scale and intensity of cyber espionage in contemporary international relations commentators have claimed that 'cyber espionage is more dangerous than you think'. Important questions are now rightly being raised as to whether cyber espionage is a permissible cat-and-mouse exercise that is part of the ebb and flow of a competi­tive international environment, or whether it is a pernicious practice that undermines international cooperation and is prohibited by international law.The importance of intelligence-gathering in the contem­porary world order cannot be denied. However, one must distinguish between intelligence-gathering from publicly available sources and intelligence-gathering from private, unau­thorised sources, namely espionage. Intelligence gathering that relies upon open source information is legally unproblematic. One must also distinguish between authorised and unauthorised intelligence-gathering. As espionage is a practice that is by definition committed in secret, and where states overwhelmingly refuse to admit responsibility for such conduct let alone justify it as acceptable under international law, there is no customary 'espionage exception' to the principles of territorial sovereignty.What, according to the passage, is the primary reason for the development of cyber-espionage?A. The offenders of the act of espionage can hide their true personality if they use cyberspace as the means to conduct the espionage thereby reducing the threat of identification.B. Cyberspace provides for an infinite space for the storage of information.C. Cyberspace makes all sensitive and confidential information publicly available thereby making the access of information easier.a)Only (A)b)Only (C)c)Both (A) and (B)d)Both (A) and (C)e)All the three (A), (B) and (C)Correct answer is option 'C'. Can you explain this answer? has been provided alongside types of Directions : Read the following passage carefully and answer the questions given after the passage. Certain words/phrases have been printed in bold to help you locate them while answering some of the questions.States are highly competitive actors and the competitiveness that exists between them has become increasingly intensified as the world order has become ever more globalised. In order to be successful and prosperous in this competitive environ­ment states require access to reliable intelligence that reveals the strengths and weaknesses of their competitors. Knowledge is power, after all.A significant amount of intelligence collected by states is from sources which are publicly available. Espionage is a prevalent method of gathering intelligence and describes 'the consciously deceitful collection of information, ordered by a govern­ment or organisation hostile to or suspicious of those the information concerns, accomplished by humans unauthorised by the target to do the collecting'. Espio­nage, then, is the unauthorised collection of non-publicly available information. The act of espionage can be committed through various methods. In its traditional conception, espionage describes the practice whereby a state dispatches an agent into the physical territory of another state in order to access and obtain confidential information. States have, however, exploited technological developments in order to devise more effective methods through which to conduct espionage. Since the emergence of vessels, aeroplanes and celestial bodies, the sea, the skies and outer space have all been used as platforms to engage in (often electronic) surveillance of adversaries; that is, to commit espionage from afar. It therefore comes as no surprise that since its creation cyberspace has also been harnessed as a medium through which to commit espionage. Indeed, the exploitation of cyberspace for the purpose of espionage has emerged as a particularly attractive method to acquire confidential information because of the large amount of information that is now stored in cyberspace and because cyberspace affords a considerable degree of ano­nymity to perpetrators of espionage and is thus a relatively risk free enterprise.Unsurprisingly, espionage has 'metastasised' since the emergence of cyber­space and reports suggest that cyber espionage projects are now prevalent. As an illustration, in February 2013 the Mandiant Report identified China as a persis­tent perpetrator of cyber espionage. In fact, the report claims that a cyber espio­nage entity known as Unit 61398 has been specifically created by the Chinese gov­ernment and is formally incorporated into the Chinese People's Liberation Army. The Report suggests that Unit 61398 is responsible for organising and instigating a massive cyber espionage campaign against other states and non-state actors, seek­ing to exploit vulnerable computer systems in order to access sensitive and confi­dential information with the aim of bolstering China's position in the international political and economic order. Only four months later in June 2013 cyber espionage was again thrust firmly into the international spotlight when Edward Snowden, a former contractor for the US National Security Agency (NSA), disclosed through WikiLeaks thousands of classified docu­ments to several media entities including The Guardian and The New York Times. The documents were alleged to reveal that the NSA had been engaged in a global surveil­lance programme at the heart of which was the collection of confidential information that was being stored in or transmitted through cyberspace. In particular, the allega­tions were that the NSA had been engaged in a sustained and widespread campaign of intercepting and monitoring private email and telephone communications. This cyber espionage allegedly targeted numerous state and non-state actors, including officials of international organisations such as the EU, state organs (including heads of state such as German Chancellor Angela Merkel and Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Olmut), religious leaders (the Pope), companies (such as the Brazilian oil company Petrobas), non-gov­ernmental organisations (including UNICEF and Médecins du Monde) and individuals suspected of being involved in international terrorism. In light of the scale and intensity of cyber espionage in contemporary international relations commentators have claimed that 'cyber espionage is more dangerous than you think'. Important questions are now rightly being raised as to whether cyber espionage is a permissible cat-and-mouse exercise that is part of the ebb and flow of a competi­tive international environment, or whether it is a pernicious practice that undermines international cooperation and is prohibited by international law.The importance of intelligence-gathering in the contem­porary world order cannot be denied. However, one must distinguish between intelligence-gathering from publicly available sources and intelligence-gathering from private, unau­thorised sources, namely espionage. Intelligence gathering that relies upon open source information is legally unproblematic. One must also distinguish between authorised and unauthorised intelligence-gathering. As espionage is a practice that is by definition committed in secret, and where states overwhelmingly refuse to admit responsibility for such conduct let alone justify it as acceptable under international law, there is no customary 'espionage exception' to the principles of territorial sovereignty.What, according to the passage, is the primary reason for the development of cyber-espionage?A. The offenders of the act of espionage can hide their true personality if they use cyberspace as the means to conduct the espionage thereby reducing the threat of identification.B. Cyberspace provides for an infinite space for the storage of information.C. Cyberspace makes all sensitive and confidential information publicly available thereby making the access of information easier.a)Only (A)b)Only (C)c)Both (A) and (B)d)Both (A) and (C)e)All the three (A), (B) and (C)Correct answer is option 'C'. Can you explain this answer? theory, EduRev gives you an ample number of questions to practice Directions : Read the following passage carefully and answer the questions given after the passage. Certain words/phrases have been printed in bold to help you locate them while answering some of the questions.States are highly competitive actors and the competitiveness that exists between them has become increasingly intensified as the world order has become ever more globalised. In order to be successful and prosperous in this competitive environ­ment states require access to reliable intelligence that reveals the strengths and weaknesses of their competitors. Knowledge is power, after all.A significant amount of intelligence collected by states is from sources which are publicly available. Espionage is a prevalent method of gathering intelligence and describes 'the consciously deceitful collection of information, ordered by a govern­ment or organisation hostile to or suspicious of those the information concerns, accomplished by humans unauthorised by the target to do the collecting'. Espio­nage, then, is the unauthorised collection of non-publicly available information. The act of espionage can be committed through various methods. In its traditional conception, espionage describes the practice whereby a state dispatches an agent into the physical territory of another state in order to access and obtain confidential information. States have, however, exploited technological developments in order to devise more effective methods through which to conduct espionage. Since the emergence of vessels, aeroplanes and celestial bodies, the sea, the skies and outer space have all been used as platforms to engage in (often electronic) surveillance of adversaries; that is, to commit espionage from afar. It therefore comes as no surprise that since its creation cyberspace has also been harnessed as a medium through which to commit espionage. Indeed, the exploitation of cyberspace for the purpose of espionage has emerged as a particularly attractive method to acquire confidential information because of the large amount of information that is now stored in cyberspace and because cyberspace affords a considerable degree of ano­nymity to perpetrators of espionage and is thus a relatively risk free enterprise.Unsurprisingly, espionage has 'metastasised' since the emergence of cyber­space and reports suggest that cyber espionage projects are now prevalent. As an illustration, in February 2013 the Mandiant Report identified China as a persis­tent perpetrator of cyber espionage. In fact, the report claims that a cyber espio­nage entity known as Unit 61398 has been specifically created by the Chinese gov­ernment and is formally incorporated into the Chinese People's Liberation Army. The Report suggests that Unit 61398 is responsible for organising and instigating a massive cyber espionage campaign against other states and non-state actors, seek­ing to exploit vulnerable computer systems in order to access sensitive and confi­dential information with the aim of bolstering China's position in the international political and economic order. Only four months later in June 2013 cyber espionage was again thrust firmly into the international spotlight when Edward Snowden, a former contractor for the US National Security Agency (NSA), disclosed through WikiLeaks thousands of classified docu­ments to several media entities including The Guardian and The New York Times. The documents were alleged to reveal that the NSA had been engaged in a global surveil­lance programme at the heart of which was the collection of confidential information that was being stored in or transmitted through cyberspace. In particular, the allega­tions were that the NSA had been engaged in a sustained and widespread campaign of intercepting and monitoring private email and telephone communications. This cyber espionage allegedly targeted numerous state and non-state actors, including officials of international organisations such as the EU, state organs (including heads of state such as German Chancellor Angela Merkel and Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Olmut), religious leaders (the Pope), companies (such as the Brazilian oil company Petrobas), non-gov­ernmental organisations (including UNICEF and Médecins du Monde) and individuals suspected of being involved in international terrorism. In light of the scale and intensity of cyber espionage in contemporary international relations commentators have claimed that 'cyber espionage is more dangerous than you think'. Important questions are now rightly being raised as to whether cyber espionage is a permissible cat-and-mouse exercise that is part of the ebb and flow of a competi­tive international environment, or whether it is a pernicious practice that undermines international cooperation and is prohibited by international law.The importance of intelligence-gathering in the contem­porary world order cannot be denied. However, one must distinguish between intelligence-gathering from publicly available sources and intelligence-gathering from private, unau­thorised sources, namely espionage. Intelligence gathering that relies upon open source information is legally unproblematic. One must also distinguish between authorised and unauthorised intelligence-gathering. As espionage is a practice that is by definition committed in secret, and where states overwhelmingly refuse to admit responsibility for such conduct let alone justify it as acceptable under international law, there is no customary 'espionage exception' to the principles of territorial sovereignty.What, according to the passage, is the primary reason for the development of cyber-espionage?A. The offenders of the act of espionage can hide their true personality if they use cyberspace as the means to conduct the espionage thereby reducing the threat of identification.B. Cyberspace provides for an infinite space for the storage of information.C. Cyberspace makes all sensitive and confidential information publicly available thereby making the access of information easier.a)Only (A)b)Only (C)c)Both (A) and (B)d)Both (A) and (C)e)All the three (A), (B) and (C)Correct answer is option 'C'. Can you explain this answer? tests, examples and also practice CAT tests.