Citizenship Class 11 Political Science

Introduction

Citizenship is defined as full and equal membership in a political community. 

• States nowadays offer collective political identity and rights to their members, such as being Indian, Japanese, or German, depending on the state.
• Citizens expect rights and protection from their state, even when travelling.
• In democratic countries, political, civil, and socio-economic rights are typically included, such as the right to vote, freedom of speech, a minimum wage, or education.

• Equality of rights and status is a fundamental aspect of citizenship.
• Citizens have had to struggle to secure their rights over time.
• European countries, for instance, underwent struggles, some of which were violent, like the French Revolution in 1789.
• In Asia and Africa, demands for equal citizenship were part of the fight for independence from colonial rulers.
• In South Africa, black Africans waged a prolonged struggle against the ruling white minority for equal citizenship until the early 1990s.
• However, citizenship extends beyond the relationship between states and their members to include citizen-citizen relations and citizens' obligations to one another and society.

Full and Equal Membership

•  When travelling in crowded spaces like a railway compartment or bus, people often transition from competing for entry to uniting against newcomers. This division between “insiders” and “outsiders” mirrors broader societal patterns seen in cities, regions, or nations, especially when resources like jobs, education, healthcare, land, or water are limited. For instance, the slogan “Mumbai for Mumbaikars” reflects such sentiments and similar struggles have occurred across India and the world. 
•  These situations raise critical questions about “full and equal membership.” Does it mean all citizens should enjoy equal rights and opportunities regardless of where they live, study, or work? Does it imply that everyone, rich or poor, deserves access to basic rights and facilities? To explore these ideas, we can consider the freedom of movement, a fundamental right in many countries, including India. 

• Freedom of Movement and Migration: Freedom of movement allows citizens to seek work and better opportunities across regions, often leading to migration. For example, IT professionals may relocate to Bengaluru, nurses from Kerala may work across the country, and labourers might migrate for construction projects. While migration supports economic growth, it can also cause local resistance, especially when jobs are scarce or wages are undercut. In some cases, demands arise to reserve jobs for locals, sometimes escalating into violence against migrants. 
• Disparities in Acceptance of Migrants: A distinction often exists between how skilled and unskilled migrants are received. Educated and affluent workers may be welcomed, while poorer migrants may face hostility. This disparity raises ethical questions about whether all citizens, regardless of skill level, should have equal rights to live and work anywhere in the country. 
• Resolving Conflicts in a Democracy: In a democratic society, disputes over such issues should be addressed through discussion, negotiation, and legal processes, rather than force. The right to protest, a form of freedom of expression guaranteed by the Constitution, allows citizens to voice their concerns through demonstrations, media, or courts, as long as these actions do not harm others or the state. Courts can provide decisions or encourage governments to act on such matters, emphasising the principle of equal membership for all citizens. 
• Citizenship as a Shared Responsibility: Citizenship entails not only rights but also obligations. Ensuring inclusivity and addressing conflicts fairly are crucial for maintaining a democratic society. By fostering dialogue and respecting diversity, we can work towards solutions that uphold the values of equality and unity, essential for a thriving nation. 

Martin Luther King, Jr. and the Civil Rights Movement

Equal Rights

Slum Dwellers

• In every Indian city, there is a significant population of slum dwellers and squatters who often do essential work for low wages but are viewed unfavourably by the rest of the town population.
• Living in a slum exposes residents to insecurity of life and property, but their labour contributes significantly to the economy.
• Awareness about the urban poor's condition is increasing among governments, NGOs, and slum dwellers themselves, who are also becoming aware of their rights and organising to demand them.
• Supreme Court Decision (1985): In response to a Public Interest Litigation by Olga Tellis against the Bombay Municipal Corporation, the Court addressed the rights of slum-dwellers in Bombay.
• Petition Claim: Argued that slum-dwellers had the right to live on pavements or in slums due to a lack of alternative accommodation near their workplaces, and eviction would result in loss of livelihood.
• Ruling: The Supreme Court ruled that Article 21 of the Constitution, which guarantees the right to life, includes the right to livelihood. Thus, pavement dwellers must be provided with alternative accommodation before eviction under the right to shelter.

Tribal People

• The tribal people and forest dwellers are another marginalised group in our society who rely on natural resources to maintain their way of life.
• The commercial interests seeking to mine the resources found in forests or coasts, as well as the tourism industry, are endangering their livelihoods.
• Governments face the challenge of protecting these communities and their habitat without impeding the country's development.

Citizenship, Equality and Rights

Complex Equal Rights:

• Providing equal rights and opportunities to all citizens is a challenging task for any government since different groups may have varying needs, and their rights may conflict.
• Citizenship's formal laws are only a starting point, and their interpretation is continually evolving.
• The concept of equal citizenship requires that government policies prioritise providing equal rights and protection to all citizens, with consideration for their diverse needs rather than applying uniform policies.

Citizen and Nation

The concept of the nation-state emerged in the modern era, with one of its earliest assertions seen during the French Revolution in 1789, when revolutionaries emphasised national sovereignty and the democratic rights of citizens. Nation-states typically associate their boundaries with a unique culture, shared history, and political identity, often symbolised by flags, national anthems, or ceremonial practices.

National Identity and Inclusion in Democratic States

Modern nation-states are often home to diverse populations with varied religions, languages, and cultural traditions. Ideally, a democratic state creates a political identity that includes all citizens. However, in practice, some groups find it easier to align with this identity than others, leading to inequalities in citizenship recognition and access.

Examples of Inclusion Challenges

• France, while secular and inclusive, expects citizens to assimilate into its cultural norms in public life, retaining personal beliefs privately. This has led to controversies, such as banning Sikh turbans or Muslim headscarves in schools, illustrating that assimilation is easier for some groups than others.
• Germany prioritises ethnic origin in granting citizenship, which complicates the status of Turkish workers and their children born in Germany.
• Israel emphasises religion as a criterion for citizenship.

The Indian Context: A Secular and Inclusive Nation-State

India's struggle for independence was rooted in an effort to unite people of diverse religions, languages, and cultures. Despite the Partition of 1947, the commitment to build a secular, inclusive nation-state was enshrined in the Indian Constitution, which:

• Grants equal citizenship to groups such as Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, women, and isolated communities.
• Protects personal beliefs, languages, and cultural practices while providing equal rights.
• Lists citizenship provisions in Part Two and subsequent laws, allowing acquisition by birth, descent, registration, naturalisation, or territory inclusion.

Struggles and Challenges in Democratic Citizenship

Despite these inclusive provisions, India has witnessed various movements by groups seeking full rights of citizenship, such as:

• The women’s movement advocates for gender equality.
• The Dalit movement seeks social justice.
• Struggles by communities displaced by development projects.

Citizenship as an Evolving Project

India’s experience highlights that democratic citizenship is not a fixed concept but an ideal to strive towards, requiring constant negotiation. As societies evolve, new demands arise from marginalised groups, challenging states to redefine inclusion and equality while upholding democratic principles.

This dynamic process demonstrates that the journey toward inclusive and equitable citizenship is ongoing and critical for the stability and unity of any democratic nation-state.

Naturalization is the legal process by which a non-citizen acquires citizenship in a country. It usually requires meeting criteria like residency, knowledge of the country's language and history, and good moral character.

Citizenship in India

Refugees and Illegal Migrants

When we picture people on the move, two broad realities emerge. First are the economic migrants—individuals from parts of Asia or Africa who pay agents to cross into Europe or the United States without papers, risking their lives for a better future. Second are the forced migrants fleeing war, famine, or persecution, such as those from Darfur (Sudan), Palestine, Myanmar, or Bangladesh. Both groups uproot themselves in search of safety and stability.

Migration, Statelessness, and Identity

Whether they cross borders legally or not, many displaced people end up in refugee camps or live precariously as irregular migrants. Lacking legal status, they are often barred from regular work, schooling for their children, or property ownership, and can remain stateless for years. The United Nations addresses this through the Office of the High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), yet the numbers remain daunting.

National Rules of Citizenship

While the ideal of inclusive citizenship suggests that anyone who lives and contributes to a country should belong, every nation sets constitutional and legal criteria for entry and naturalisation. States also police their borders to decide whom to admit. Walls and fences may slow movement, but conflicts, disasters, and poverty keep migration flows alive.

India’s Experience

India has a long record of offering refuge, most famously to the Dalai Lama and his followers in 1959. Over time, people have crossed nearly all its borders. Many remain in limbo for decades, and only a minority eventually secure citizenship, creating tension between India’s humanitarian instincts and the practical limits of resources and security.

Challenges to Democratic Citizenship

Democratic citizenship promises equal rights and a secure identity, yet millions cannot obtain it anywhere. They lose not only a passport but also a political voice and legal protection. As wars redraw boundaries, the number of stateless persons grows, exposing a gap between democratic ideals and reality.

Big Questions

• Can national citizenship alone solve the plight of displaced people?

• If not, what alternative identities or protections are feasible today?

• Should the world work toward a genuinely universal—or “global”—citizenship?

Toward Global Citizenship

Some scholars and activists argue for a form of global citizenship that would guarantee basic rights independent of nationality. Whether this is practical—or merely aspirational—remains open for debate. The next section will examine how such ideas might work in practice and what obstacles they face.

Universal Citizenship

• Universal and inclusive citizenship is supported, but each state sets its own criteria.
• Criteria for granting citizenship are usually included in the country's constitution and laws.
• States exercise power to prevent unwanted visitors from entering.
• Various factors, such as wars, persecution, and famine, may cause displacement.
• If people cannot return home and no state accepts them, they become stateless or refugees.
• Stateless individuals may be forced to live in camps or as illegal migrants.
• The problem of statelessness is significant, prompting the United Nations to appoint a High Commissioner for Refugees.
• Many countries have policies for accepting refugees fleeing from persecution or war.
• However, countries may hesitate to accept an unmanageable number of people or face security risks.
• India has provided refuge to persecuted peoples, like the Dalai Lama and his followers in 1959.
• The issue of statelessness remains a major challenge facing the world today.

Global Citizenship

•  There was a large outpouring of support and sympathy for the victims of the tsunami that impacted several countries in South Asia in 2004. 
•  Today, there are international networks that connect terrorists. 
•  The United Nations is collaborating with various countries to help prevent the spread of bird flu and to address the potential rise of a human viral pandemic. 
• What do these statements have in common? They highlight our current world.
• We live in a connected world. Modern communication tools like the internet, television, and cell phones have changed how we perceive our surroundings.
• In the past, news about significant events could take months to spread from one area to another. But now, new communication methods allow us to learn about global events instantly.
• We can see disasters and conflicts happening live on our screens, which helps foster empathy and shared concerns among people worldwide.
• Proponents of global citizenship suggest that even though a worldwide community doesn’t fully exist yet, people already feel connected beyond their national borders.
• They argue that the global response to the Asian tsunami and other major disasters shows the beginnings of a global society.
• They believe we should nurture this sense of connection and work towards a more defined concept of global citizenship.
• The idea of national citizenship implies that a state offers individuals the rights and protections they need for a dignified life.
• However, many states face challenges they cannot solve alone. This raises the question: are the individual rights provided by the state enough to safeguard personal freedom in today’s world?
• Or is it time to shift towards a broader understanding of human rights and global citizenship?
• One appealing aspect of global citizenship is that it may facilitate addressing issues that cross national borders and require cooperative efforts from people and governments worldwide.
• For example, it could lead to better solutions for the problems faced by migrants and stateless individuals, ensuring they receive basic rights and protections no matter where they live.
• In previous discussions, we noted that equal citizenship within a country can be threatened by socio-economic inequalities and other issues.
• These challenges can typically only be resolved by the governments and communities within that society. Thus, full and equal membership in a state is still crucial for individuals today.
•  However, the concept of global citizenship reminds us that national citizenship should be complemented by an understanding of our interconnected world. 
•  We need to strengthen our relationships with people in different countries and be prepared to collaborate with others across national borders. 

Conclusion

• Citizenship is a dynamic relationship that goes beyond legal status, involving both individual rights and collective responsibilities.
• As we face modern challenges, from local disputes to global issues, our commitment to equality and inclusion will shape the future of citizenship.