Flowering of Regional Cultures Chapter Notes | History Class 7 ICSE PDF Download

Introduction

Development of Languages

• Many languages grew and thrived in different parts of India during the medieval period
• Muslim rulers brought Arabic and Persian languages to India
• Persian and Hindi mixed to create Urdu
• Regional languages like Marathi, Kannada, Telugu, Tamil, Malayalam, Gujarati, and Bengali developed and flourished
• These regional languages were used before the Turks arrived and continued during the Delhi Sultans and Mughals
• Bhakti and Sufi movements helped spread ideas and compositions in regional languages

Sanskrit

• Sanskrit was a key language in ancient India and remained important in the medieval period
• It was the official language of north India until the Delhi Sultanate was established
• Many works on law, grammar, astronomy, poetry, and religion were written in Sanskrit
• Hindu and Muslim kings supported Sanskrit
• Kathasaritsagara by Somadeva, a collection of stories and legends with about 22,000 slokas, was written in the 11th century
• Rajatarangini by Kalhana, written in 1148, is a chronicle of the kings of Kashmir
• Gita Govinda by Jayadeva, from the 12th century, describes the love of Krishna and Radha
• Verses from Gita Govinda are still sung during Krishna-related celebrations and festivals

Persian

• The Turks brought the Persian language to India, making it the court language
• Amir Khusrau (1253-1325) was a poet, scholar, mathematician, and historian
• He wrote mostly in Persian but also used Hindavi, a mix of Hindustani and Arabic
• His work Tughluq Nama describes the reign of Ghiyasuddin Tughluq
• Court chronicles, biographies, and autobiographies of rulers were written in Persian
• Important historians included Minhaj-i-Siraj, Barani, Isami, and Abul Fazl
• Al Utbi and Naziri were notable Persian poets
• Sanskrit works like the Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Upanishads were translated into Persian

Hindi

• Hindi began to develop between the 7th and 10th centuries
• It grew from Sanskrit and dialects like Khari Boli, Awadhi, Brij Bhasha, and Maithili
• Prithviraj Raso by Chand Bardai is an early heroic poem in an early form of Hindi
• Akbar supported Hindi poets during his reign
• Abdul Rahim Khan-i-Khana, known as Rahim, wrote Bhakti poetry in Hindi
• Important 15th-century works include Ramcharitmanas by Tulsidas, about Ram, and Sursagar by Surdas, about devotion to Krishna
• Bhakti saints like Kabir and Namdev also wrote in Hindi

Urdu

• Urdu developed between the 17th and 18th centuries
• It formed from the blend of Persian and Hindi
• The word "Urdu" comes from Turkish, meaning "camp"
• It became a link language, widely spoken and understood in north India
• Urdu grew popular under the Mughals
• In the Deccan, a standardized form called Dakhani emerged under the Bahmani rulers
• Dakhani mixed Persian with regional languages like Telugu and Tamil
• Notable 18th-century Urdu poets include Mir Taqi Mir, Khwaja Mir Dard, and Mirza Sauda

Marathi

• Marathi became an important literary language in the 13th century
• Bhakti saints used Marathi to share their ideas
• Jnaneshwar wrote Jnaneshwari, a commentary on the Bhagavad Gita
• His writings greatly helped Marathi language grow
• Bhakti saints Tukaram and Eknath also contributed to Marathi development
• Marathi shahirs (poets) composed powadas, poems about heroic figures and adventures
• They also wrote lavanis, romantic poems

Punjabi

• Punjabi emerged in north India
• The Guru Granth Sahib, written and compiled by Sikh Gurus, enriched Punjabi
• Janamsakhis are early Punjabi works about the life and legends of Guru Nanak
• Between the 16th and 18th centuries, Punjabi Sufi saints like Shah Hussain, Sultan Bahu, and Bulleh Shah wrote poetry
• Punjabi has a rich tradition of kissas (folk tales)
• The most famous kissa is Heer Ranjha by Waris Shah

Tamil

• Alvar (Vaishnavites) and Nayanar (Shaivites) saints wrote devotional songs in Tamil
• Hymns to Shiva are collected in the Tirumurai, which has 12 volumes
• The Tevaram, written in the 10th century, is the first of these collections
• Periya Puranam by Sekkilar, the twelfth Tirumurai, tells the life stories of the 63 Nayanar saints
• It is highly valued in Tamil literature
• Hymns to Vishnu are in the Nalayira Divya Prabandham by Nathamuni, composed by all 12 Alvars in the 10th century
• Tamil language and literature grew under the Cholas
• Kambar's Ramayana, also called Kambaramayanam, is a key Tamil work

Malayalam

• Malayalam developed as Kerala's language, influenced by Tamil and Sanskrit
• Texts in Malayalam date back to the 2nd century
• In the 9th century, the Cheras used the Malayalam script in inscriptions
• This was one of the earliest uses of a regional language in official records
• Early literary works in Malayalam appeared in the 12th century
• Sanskrit's influence led to a mix called Manipravalam
• Lilatilakam, a 14th-century work on grammar and poetics, was written in Manipravalam
• Many poems were composed in the Manipravalam style

Telugu

• From the 10th century, Sanskrit epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata, and Jain legends were translated into Telugu
• By the 13th century, Telugu Shaiva poets contributed to Telugu literature
• Telugu language and literature peaked during the Vijayanagara Empire
• Krishnadeva Raya, a famous Vijayanagara ruler, was a skilled Telugu poet and scholar
• He wrote the poem Amuktamalyada in Telugu
• His court was known for the Ashthadiggajas, or 8 great poets
• Allasani Peddana was the most famous among them
• He composed many works in the prabandha style

Regional Texts as Sources

• Regional texts are valuable for understanding medieval Indian history
• They were written by people familiar with local customs, traditions, and cultures
• These texts provide details about life, trade, commerce, and cultural developments
• For some dynasties or rulers, these texts are the only sources of information
• Both secular and religious texts in regional languages offer useful insights

Painting

• Before the Mughal school of painting was established, there was already an existing tradition of painting in India.
• The skill of Indian painters can be seen in the statues, murals, and caves like Ajanta.
• The miniature tradition of painting developed during the medieval period.
• Miniatures, as the name suggests, are small paintings composed in colour on cloth or paper.
• The earliest miniatures were made on palm leaves or wood.
• Beautiful miniature paintings were made in western India to illustrate Jain texts.
• Paper was introduced in India during the 13th century.
• This changed the face of art in India.
• Miniature painting flourished in India under the Mughals.
• Themes such as court scenes, hunting scenes, battle scenes, and various scenes of social life were shown.
• These were generally painted in bright and brilliant colours such as peacock blue and red.
• The Mughal School of painting is said to have started with Humayun.
• He became familiar with Persian art when he was living in the Safavid court of Shah Tahmasp.
• Humayun brought many Persian painters to India with him.
• Abdus Samad and Mir Sayyid Ali were two of the most well-known among them.

Akbar's Patronage

• Akbar was a great patron of painting.
• It was during his reign that Persian and Indian art styles fused to form a rich mixed style.
• During his reign, European methods such as the element of perspective were introduced.
• The use of light and shade, chiaroscuro, could also be seen.
• A great number of artists were employed by him.
• Some of the famous artists during his reign were Dasawanth and Basawan.

Commissioned Works

• Akbar commissioned many illustrated histories like the Hamzanama, Razmnama, Timurnama, Baburnama, and the Akbarnama.
• Less emphasis was given to book illustration during Jahangir's reign.
• However, miniature painting reached its peak under him.
• Jahangir preferred court scenes, portraits, and animal studies which were collected in albums.
• Many of them had richly decorated margins (hashiyas).
• Mansur, Abu’l Hasan, Bichitr, Govardhan, Bishandas, and Manohar were some of the great painters in Jahangir's court.
• The Jahangirnama is an important illustrated work of his reign.

Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb

• Shah Jahan was more interested in architecture, but he commissioned a few paintings.
• These used gold and rich pigments.
• An important illustrated work of his reign is the Padshahnama.
• Aurangzeb was not interested in painting.
• Gradually, because of fading support, a declining trend set in.
• Various artists from the Mughal court moved on to the courts of the emerging regional states.

Emergence of Regional Schools

• This led to the rise of Rajasthani, Pahari, and Deccani schools of painting.
• These schools were influenced by the Mughal artistic style, but they had their own distinctive characteristics.
• Mewar, Kota, Kishangarh, Bundi, Bikaner, and Jodhpur were some important centres of the Rajasthani school of painting.
• Each of these schools had their own distinctive styles.
• Court scenes, portraits, nature scenes, poetry, and themes from mythology like the Radha-Krishna story were commonly shown.

Music

• Music flourished, splitting into Hindustani (north) and Carnatic (south) schools
• Turks brought Persian, Arabic, and Central Asian musical traditions, blending them with Indian music
• The Carnatic school in the south was not affected by this blend
• New instruments like the rabab and sarangi were introduced by the Turks
• Amir Khusrau, a poet and musician, mixed Persian, Arabic, and Indian melodies
• He created new ragas and popularized qawwalis
• He was a disciple of Sufi saint Nizamuddin Auliya
• Sufis held samas, musical gatherings for common people and skilled musicians
• Bhakti saints like Chaitanya and Mirabai used music to share their message
• Chaitanya popularized kirtana, singing devotional songs in large gatherings
• Delhi sultans and Mughal rulers supported music
• During Feroz Shah Tughluq's reign, the Indian classical work Ragadarpan was translated into Persian
• Akbar patronized music, with 36 skilled musicians listed in the Ain-i-Akbari
• Tansen, one of Akbar's navratnas, sang in the dhrupad style
• Raja Man Singh of Gwalior also supported the dhrupad style
• Music grew during Mughal king Muhammad Shah's reign
• Dhrupad and khyal styles of singing were practiced
• Muhammad Shah composed songs under a pen-name
• Rulers of Jaunpur, Gwalior, Kashmir, Gujarat, and Malwa also supported music
• The use of the tabla increased by the end of the 17th century
• The Vijayanagara Empire was a key center for Carnatic music
• Chaturdandi Prakasika, a work on Carnatic music, was written in the 17th century

Fact File

• Ragamala means 'garland of ragas'
• Ragamala paintings give human form to ragas, which are rules for building melodies
• There are six male ragas and six female ragas (raginis)
• Their children are ragaputras (sons) and ragaputris (daughters)
• Popular Ragamala painting scenes include Bhairav Raga, Khambavati Raga, Hindola Raga, Todi Ragini, Dhanasri Ragini, Basant Raga, and Megh Malhar Raga

Dance

• Classical dance forms of India developed during the medieval period, mostly in temples
• Main forms include Bharatanatyam (Tamil Nadu), Kathak (north India), Kathakali (Kerala), Odissi (Odisha), Kuchipudi (Andhra Pradesh), and Manipuri (Manipur)

Bharatanatyam

• Bharatanatyam evolved in south India
• It was performed by devadasis (temple dancers) in Hindu temples
• Bharata's Natyashastra, an ancient book on dance, drama, and poetry, mentions Bharatanatyam

Kathak

• Kathak is a dance form linked to north India
• The term comes from "katha," meaning story
• Kathaks were storytellers in temples, using gestures and songs
• It was mentioned in the Mahabharata
• By the 15th-16th century, Kathak became a distinct dance form
• Under the Mughals, it was performed in courts, gaining intricate footwork and elaborate costumes
• Three main gharanas (traditions) are Jaipur, Benaras, and Lucknow
• Kathak grew under Nawab Wajid Ali Shah, the last ruler of Awadh

Manipuri

• Manipuri is the dance form of Manipur in northeast India
• Themes are often from episodes in Krishna's life
• It was supported by many Manipuri rulers
• In the 20th century, it became popular in Bengal

Mohiniyattam

• Mohiniyattam is a semi-classical dance from Kerala
• It is performed by women in honor of Vishnu as Mohini
• The myth of Mohini is central to the performance
• Songs use Manipravalam, a mix of Sanskrit and Malayalam
• It was mentioned in a 16th-century document
• The dance took proper shape in the 18th century

Odissi

• Odissi is a classical dance from Odisha
• It follows the principles of the Natyashastra
• Its poses are seen in sculptures of old temples, showing its ancient roots
• Odissi is similar to Bharatanatyam in its basic pattern
• It is usually performed by women, with devotion to Krishna as the main theme

Kuchipudi

• Kuchipudi is a classical dance from Andhra Pradesh
• It is unique because it includes singing
• Its origins are linked to the dance-drama Bhama Kalapam by Sidhyendra Yogi
• Traditionally, all roles were played by men

Case Study: Bengal

• Bengal has a rich cultural heritage, a major center of art and literature
• Bengali language grew from Sanskrit's influence on local dialects
• The Palas ruled parts of Bengal from the 8th to 12th centuries
• In east Bengal, the Senas came to power in 1095
• Ballalasena, a Sena ruler, wrote works on astronomy
• Laxmanasena, his son, was a talented writer and poet
• Jayadeva, composer of Gita Govinda, was part of Laxmanasena's court
• From the 14th to 16th centuries, Bengal was ruled by sultans independent of the Delhi Sultanate
• Akbar conquered Bengal, making Persian the official language
• Bengali remained the language of the people
• Bengali was influenced by Persian, Sanskrit, and European languages
• Early Bengali literature included translations of Sanskrit works like the Mahabharata and Ramayana
• These translations happened during Alauddin Hussain Shah's reign
• Mangalkavyas were poems about local deities like Chandi and Manasa
• Folk literature, including fairy tales, folk tales, and ballads, was passed down orally
• Bhakti saint Chaitanya composed popular songs in Bengali
• Shri Krishna kirtan poems by Boru Chandidas, a Vaishnav saint, were influential
• Vaishnava saints' literature helped develop Bengali language and literature
• Compositions about Chaitanya and his time give insights into society
• Folk music, including Baul gaan, was popular in Bengal
• Jatras, musical drama theaters, were performed and are still enacted by traveling performers
• Bauls were mystic minstrels, including Hindus (mostly Vaishnavites) and Muslims (Sufis or mystics)
• Baul songs were accompanied by the ektara, a one-string instrument
• Baul songs were collected and written down only in the 20th century
• Rabindranath Tagore was inspired by the bauls

Architecture

• Temple construction in Bengal increased from the 15th to 19th centuries
• Local deities once worshipped in thatched huts were now honored in temples
• Vishnupur in Bankura district, West Bengal, has excellent Bangla style temples
• Important temples include Rasmancha, Keshta Raya temple (Jor Bangla temple), Radha Gobind temple, and Shyama Raya temple

Point to Remember

• Sanskrit was north India's official language until the Delhi Sultanate
• Important Sanskrit works include Rajatarangini, Kathasaritsagara, and Gita Govinda
• Amir Khusrau (1253-1325) wrote Tughluq Nama and popularized qawwalis
• Prithviraj Raso by Chand Bardai is an early work in an early form of Hindi
• Abdul Rahim Khan-i-Khana wrote Bhakti poetry in Hindi
• Key Hindi works from the Mughal period include Ramcharitmanas and Sursagar
• Jnaneshwar, a Bhakti saint, wrote Jnaneshwari in Marathi
• The Guru Granth Sahib, by Sikh Gurus, is in Punjabi
• Hymns to Shiva are in the Tirumurai
• Hymns to Vishnu are in the Nalayira Divya Prabandham
• Kambar's Ramayana, or Kambaramayanam, is a key Tamil work
• Lilatilakam, a 14th-century text, was written in Manipravalam
• Krishnadeva Raya's court was famous for the Ashthadiggajas (8 great poets)
• Miniature painting tradition grew during the medieval period
• Mughal artists moved to regional courts, leading to Rajput, Pahari, and Deccani schools
• Turks introduced new instruments like the rabab and sarangi
• Dhrupad and khyal singing styles were practiced during Muhammad Shah's reign
• Chaturdandi Prakasika, a work on Carnatic music, was written in the 17th century