Political Formations in the Eighteenth Century Chapter Notes | History Class 7 ICSE PDF Download

Introduction

This chapter explores the political landscape of 18th-century India, focusing on the decline of the Mughal Empire after Aurangzeb and the rise of independent regional kingdoms. It covers the Later Mughals, foreign invasions, key battles like Buxar, and the last Mughal emperor. The reasons for the Mughal decline are examined, alongside the emergence of groups like the Rajputs, Sikhs, Jats, and Marathas. A case study on Shivaji highlights his role in shaping the Maratha power.

The Deeg Palace

• Deeg was the site of a famous battle where the Jats defeated a combined Mughal and Maratha army of 80,000.
• Raja Suraj Mal, encouraged by this victory, began raids into enemy territory.
• After eight years of successful campaigns, Suraj Mal attacked the Red Fort in Delhi.
• The Jats looted the Red Fort, taking away valuables, including an entire marble building.
• The marble building was dismantled, numbered, and rebuilt at Deeg as a palace.
• The Deeg Palace, surrounded by beautiful gardens, is one of India’s most well-proportioned and preserved buildings.
• Materials like filigreed gates, stone slabs, ornate beams, and marble jaalis from Mughal structures were used in the palace.

The Later Mughals

• After Aurangzeb’s death in 1707, a succession war led to Bahadur Shah I becoming emperor (1707-1712).
• Jahandar Shah succeeded Bahadur Shah I.
• The Sayyid brothers, Abdullah Khan Barha and Hussain Ali Khan Barha, became powerful in the Mughal court.
• Known as kingmakers, the Sayyid brothers could place their chosen rulers on the throne.
• Farrukhsiyar became emperor in 1713 with the Sayyid brothers’ support.
• He was later deposed by the Sayyid brothers when he plotted against them.
• Muhammad Shah (1719-1748) became emperor and had the Sayyid brothers killed.
• By the end of Muhammad Shah’s reign, the Mughal Empire had significantly weakened.

Foreign Invaders

• Nadir Shah invaded India in 1739, looting Delhi and taking wealth back to Iran.
• He took the Peacock Throne and the Kohinoor diamond as part of his loot.
• Nadir Shah defeated Muhammad Shah at the Battle of Karnal.
• His invasion revealed the Mughal Empire’s weaknesses, encouraging other foreign invaders.
• Ahmad Shah Abdali, an Afghan ruler, invaded north India five times between 1748 and 1761.

Battle of Buxar

• The Battle of Buxar took place in 1764.
• It involved the British East India Company against the combined forces of Mughal emperor Shah Alam II, Nawab of Awadh Shuja-ud-Daula, and Nawab of Bengal Mir Qasim.
• The battle aimed to curb the growing power of the British.
• The British won, and Shah Alam II had to grant revenue collection rights for Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha to the British.
• This caused a major financial loss for the already struggling Mughals.

The Last Mughal Emperor

• Bahadur Shah Zafar was the final ruler of the Mughal dynasty.
• The Mughal rule officially ended after the Revolt of 1857, when the British emerged victorious.
• Bahadur Shah Zafar was exiled to Rangoon (now Yangon, Myanmar) and died there in 1862.

Reasons for the Decline of the Mughal Empire

• The decline began during Aurangzeb’s reign, though the empire lasted until 1857.
• Aurangzeb’s Deccan wars drained military and financial resources.
• His long absence from Delhi caused instability and unrest.
• Aurangzeb’s strict policies led to uprisings by groups like the Jats and Sikhs, weakening the empire.
• Successors of Aurangzeb were weak and ineffective leaders.
• Nobles, such as the Iranis and Turanis, competed for power in the court.
• The Later Mughals failed to manage the vast empire effectively.
• They lost control over mansabdars (military and administrative officials).
• Governors called subadars became very powerful, acting like independent rulers.
• Zamindars, using local armed peasants, withheld revenue from the state.
• Political and economic power shifted to provincial governors, local chieftains, and other groups.
• Military losses against the Marathas triggered uprisings by peasants, zamindars, and tribals.

Rise of Independent Kingdoms

• As Mughal power declined, independent regional kingdoms emerged.
• Former Mughal provinces like Awadh, Bengal, and Hyderabad became independent under their governors.
• Some states, previously watan jagirs, gained freedom, including several Rajput principalities.
• Other groups like the Marathas, Sikhs, and Jats established strong, independent states of varying sizes.
• These kingdoms fought long struggles to gain independence from the Mughals.

Awadh

• Awadh, or Oudh, was a wealthy region with fertile Ganga plains and key trade routes.
• It became independent under Saadat Khan, who was appointed governor in 1722.
• He received the title ‘Burhan-ul-Mulk’.
• In 1726, he refused a transfer to Malwa, indirectly declaring independence.
• He held the roles of diwani (revenue), faujdari (military), and subadari (governance).
• Saadat Khan reduced the number of Mughal-appointed jagirdars in Awadh.
• He decreased the size of jagirs and appointed loyal servants to key posts.
• Jagirdars’ accounts were checked to prevent cheating.
• Revenues from all districts were reassessed by officials from his court.
• He seized Rajput zamindaris and Afghan territories in Rohilkhand.
• The ijaradari system was introduced, where tax collection rights were sold to the highest bidder.
• Revenue farmers (ijaradars) paid a fixed sum to the state, guaranteed by local bankers.
• Ijaradars had freedom to assess and collect taxes.
• New social groups like farmers, moneylenders, and bankers gained influence.
• Saadat Khan was succeeded by his nephew and son-in-law, Safdar Jung, in 1739.
• The Nawabs of Awadh built an efficient state.
• Lucknow, their capital, became a major center of art and culture.
• Awadh was annexed by the British in 1856.

Bengal

• Bengal gained independence under Murshid Quli Khan, a Mughal governor since 1703.
• He later controlled Odisha and Bihar as well.
• Taking advantage of Mughal weakness, he ruled Bengal almost independently.
• Murshidabad was made the capital of Bengal.
• Other key Nawabs included Shujauddin, Alivardi Khan, and Siraj ud-Daulah.
• Murshid Quli Khan moved all Mughal jagirdars to Odisha.
• He ordered a reassessment of Bengal’s revenues to reduce Mughal influence.
• Revenue was collected in cash from zamindars.
• Many zamindars borrowed from bankers and moneylenders to pay.
• Those unable to pay sold land to larger zamindars.
• Bankers and moneylenders gained prominence in Bengal.
• The Nawabs encouraged agriculture, trade, and maintained law and order.
• They tried to limit the power of the English East India Company.
• The Nawabs were defeated at the Battle of Plassey in 1757 due to a weak army.
• In 1765, the British gained the diwani (revenue rights) of Bengal from Shah Alam II.
• After this, the Nawabs became mere pensioners of the British.

Hyderabad

• Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah, ruler of Golconda, founded the city of Hyderabad.
• He died without heirs, and Aurangzeb occupied Golconda.
• Chin Qilich Khan, a Mughal general, was titled Nizam-ul-Mulk.
• He became viceroy of the Deccan around 1713, controlling finance, politics, and military.
• His growing power worried Emperor Muhammad Shah, who replaced him with Mubariz Khan.
• In 1724, Nizam-ul-Mulk defeated Mubariz Khan and regained control of the Deccan.
• Hyderabad became his capital, and he ruled almost independently.
• In 1725, Muhammad Shah recognized him as viceroy of the south with the title ‘Asaf Jah’.
• His successors, known as Nizams, founded the Asaf Jahi dynasty.
• Nizam-ul-Mulk appointed mansabdars and granted jagirs.
• He brought skilled soldiers and administrators from north India.
• Though he never formally broke ties with the Mughals, he made independent decisions.
• The Mughal ruler only confirmed his decisions.
• The Marathas, Telugu nayakas, and the British checked the Nizams’ growing power.

Mysore

• Mysore became a powerful kingdom in the second half of the 18th century.
• Hyder Ali and his son Tipu Sultan were capable and efficient rulers.
• They promoted trade and modernized the army with new weapons.
• Tipu Sultan attempted to build a navy.
• He introduced a new coinage system and a new calendar.
• Tipu fought the Marathas multiple times during his rule.
• He also faced challenges from the British.
• Tipu Sultan died in 1799 at the Battle of Seringapatam, fighting the British.
• Mysore’s power ended with Tipu Sultan’s death.

The Rajputs

• Rajput rulers of Amber and Jodhpur served the Mughals with distinction.
• In return, they enjoyed considerable freedom in their watan jagirs.
• The Rajputs were allies of the Mughals until Aurangzeb’s policies offended them.
• Maharana Pratap of Mewar, who took the throne in 1572, refused Mughal authority.
• Mughal envoys failed to convince him to submit.
• In the 18th century, Rajput rulers like Ajit Singh of Jodhpur and Sawai Jai Singh of Amber expanded their territories.
• Bahadur Shah I appointed Ajit Singh as faujdar of Chitrakut and Jai Singh of Sorath in Gujarat.
• During Jahandar Shah’s reign, Jai Singh got the subedari of Malwa and Ajit Singh of Gujarat.
• Under Farrukhsiyar, Jai Singh and Ajit Singh were governors of Malwa and Thatta, respectively.
• The Sayyid brothers and later Mughals tried to win over the Rajputs.
• Rajput rulers seized neighboring Mughal territories to expand their kingdoms.
• Sawai Raja Jai Singh of Amber founded Jaipur and made it his capital.
• He introduced social reforms and supported learning, science, and art.
• Jai Singh, interested in astronomy, built Jantar Mantar observatories in Jaipur, Delhi, Ujjain, Mathura, and Varanasi.
• Rajput kingdoms fought among themselves, weakening their power.
• Maratha campaigns in the 1740s further reduced Rajput strength.

The Sikhs

• The Sikh panth, founded by Guru Nanak in the 15th century, was initially a peaceful spiritual movement.
• Tensions rose when Jahangir had Guru Arjan assassinated.
• Aurangzeb’s execution of Guru Tegh Bahadur, the 9th Guru, increased friction.
• Guru Gobind Singh, the 10th Guru, organized the Sikhs into a political and military force.
• He started the Khalsa (meaning ‘pure’) panth in 1699.
• The Sikhs fought the Mughals and Rajput kings but were defeated.
• Two sons of Guru Gobind Singh were executed by the Mughals.
• Aurangzeb and Guru Gobind Singh planned to meet, but Aurangzeb died before it happened.
• After Guru Gobind Singh’s death in 1708, Banda Bahadur led the Sikh movement.
• Banda Bahadur captured large Mughal territories in Punjab.
• He issued coins in the names of Guru Nanak and Guru Gobind Singh and set up his administration.
• He was captured and executed by the Mughals in 1715-1716.
• After his death, the Sikhs formed 12 misls, each controlling a specific area.
• Their combined forces were called the Dal Khalsa, or grand army.
• Collective decisions, called gurmat, were made by the entire body.
• The Sikhs resisted Ahmad Shah Abdali and Mughal governors strongly.
• In 1765, the Khalsa declared independence by striking their own coins.
• They introduced the rakhi system, offering protection to cultivators for 20% of produce as taxes.
• Nadir Shah’s invasion weakened the Mughals, allowing Sikhs to expand into Jammu.
• By the late 18th century, Sikh territories stretched from the Indus to the Yamuna rivers.
• Maharaja Ranjit Singh united the Sikhs into a single state with Lahore as the capital.
• He built a strong administration and kept the British at bay during his lifetime.

The Jats

• The Jats were mostly peasant cultivators and some zamindars in the Yamuna doab and plains.
• They clashed with the Mughals during Jahangir and Shah Jahan’s reigns.
• A large-scale Jat revolt occurred under Aurangzeb.
• Key leaders included Gokula, zamindar of Tilpat, and Raja Ram, zamindar of Sinisini.
• Aurangzeb fought and killed both Gokula and Raja Ram.
• Churaman Jat, Raja Ram’s nephew, became a powerful ruler after Aurangzeb’s death.
• Churaman and Badan Singh founded the state of Bharatpur.
• Suraj Mal was the most famous Jat ruler, making Bharatpur a strong state.
• He built forts like the Iron Fort (Bharatpur Fort or Lohargarh Fort).
• The Jats constructed the elaborate Deeg Palace with gardens.
• Under Suraj Mal, the Jats resisted Ahmad Shah Abdali’s invasion.
• The Jat state weakened after the death of Suraj Mal’s heir, Jawahir Singh.

The Marathas

• The Marathas, of mixed agricultural and related caste origins, followed a military tradition for land grants.
• They became a powerful force under Shivaji in the 17th century.
• Shivaji was the son of Shahji Bhonsle, a high official in Bijapur.
• Shahji tried to create a semi-independent kingdom near Bengaluru.
• Shivaji was succeeded by his son Sambhaji, who was executed by the Mughals.
• Shahu, Sambhaji’s son, was imprisoned by Aurangzeb but later became the Maratha king.
• Shahu appointed Balaji Vishwanath, a Chitpavan Brahmin, as Peshwa in 1713.

Case Study: Shivaji

• Shivaji was raised by his mother Jijabai and tutor Dadaji Kondadev in Pune.
• A clever and capable ruler, he built a strong army at age 18.
• He captured forts like Torna, Chakan, and Purnadar.
• Shivaji used guerrilla warfare tactics effectively.
• As Aurangzeb left the Deccan for a succession war, Shivaji attacked Bijapur.
• Ali Adil Shah II of Bijapur sent Afzal Khan to stop Shivaji.
• Shivaji killed Afzal Khan and defeated the Bijapuri army.
• In 1660, Aurangzeb sent Shaista Khan to capture Shivaji.
• In 1663, Shivaji wounded Shaista Khan and killed many of his followers.
• Aurangzeb replaced Shaista Khan with his son Muazzam.
• Shivaji raided Surat, a key Mughal port and pilgrimage center.
• Aurangzeb sent Jai Singh, an experienced general, to fight the Marathas.
• Jai Singh besieged Purandar Fort, leading to the Marathas’ defeat.
• The Treaty of Purandar was signed, with Shivaji accepting Aurangzeb as overlord.
• Shivaji agreed to pay tribute and surrender 23 of his 35 forts.
• Shivaji met Aurangzeb at court but felt insulted and was placed under house arrest.
• He escaped by hiding in a basket of fruits and sweets.
• In 1674, Shivaji crowned himself king at Rajgarh, taking the title Chhatrapati.
• He died in 1680, leaving a strong Maratha state.

Peshwas

• Shivaji’s weak successors led to power shifting to the Peshwas, the Maratha Prime Ministers.
• From 1713 to 1761, the Peshwas controlled the Maratha empire.
• Balaji Vishwanath’s son, Baji Rao I (1720-1740), and grandson Balaji Baji Rao (Nana Saheb) were key Peshwas.
• With chiefs like the Gaekwads and Holkars, they expanded the empire.
• The Marathas captured Mughal territories, attacked Delhi and Rajputana.
• By the 1720s, they seized Malwa and Gujarat.
• Various treaties recognized Maratha authority over more regions.
• By the 1730s, the Maratha king ruled the Deccan and collected chauth and sardeshmukhi.
• The Marathas expanded to Rajasthan, Bengal, Odisha, Karnataka, and southern kingdoms.
• Some regions paid tributes to accept Maratha sovereignty.
• In the Third Battle of Panipat (1761), the Marathas were defeated by Ahmad Shah Abdali.
• After this, the empire fragmented, with chiefs like the Sindhias, Gaekwads, Holkars, and Bhonsles ruling independently.
• The British strengthened their position in these areas.

Maratha Administration

• Shivaji developed an efficient administrative system, borrowing from Deccan states.
• He curbed the power of deshmukhs (warrior families) and gained their support.
• Marathi and Sanskrit, with some Persian terms, were used for administration.
• Shivaji made Marathi his court language.
• He set up a centralized administration, with ministers reporting directly to him.
• He was aided by the Ashtapradhan, a council of eight ministers.
• The ministers were: Peshwa (Prime Minister), Amatya (Finance), Sachiv (Secretary), Mantri (Home), Sumant (Foreign Affairs), Senapati (Commander-in-chief), Nyayadhish (Chief Judge), and Panditrao (Religion).
• Shivaji organized an efficient army and revenue system.
• He paid his army in cash, relying on plunder from neighboring areas.
• The army was mobile, skilled in guerrilla warfare.
• Shivaji employed Muslims in his army.
• He worked to develop a navy, a rare effort among Indian rulers.
• He controlled and supervised many forts.
• Nobles and ministers were chosen based on merit.
• Later, the Peshwa post became hereditary as the king’s power declined.
• Revenue was assessed and collected after measuring the land.
• Agriculture was promoted and supported by the state.
• Territories were divided into Swarajya (directly controlled by Marathas) and Mughlai (lands accepting Maratha authority).
• From Swarajya, two-fifths of the produce was collected as land tax.
• In Mughlai lands, chauth (one-fourth of revenue) and sardeshmukhi (ten percent of revenue) were levied.
• Maratha chiefs like the Sindhias, Bhonsles, Holkars, and Gaekwads maintained strong armies.
• These chiefs led campaigns to expand the Maratha empire.

Point to Remember

• The Mughal emperors after Aurangzeb are called the Later Mughals.
• The Battle of Buxar (1764) pitted the British against Shah Alam II, Shuja-ud-Daula, and Mir Qasim.
• Bahadur Shah Zafar was the last Mughal ruler.
• Awadh emerged as an independent state under Saadat Khan.
• Saadat Khan introduced the ijaradari system, selling tax collection rights to the highest bidder.
• Bengal became independent under Murshid Quli Khan, followed by Shujauddin, Alivardi Khan, and Siraj ud-Daulah.
• The Nawabs of Bengal were defeated by the British at the Battle of Plassey in 1757.
• Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah founded the city of Hyderabad.
• Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan were notable rulers of Mysore.
• Rajput ruler Sawai Raja Jai Singh of Amber founded Jaipur and made it his capital.
• Maharaja Ranjit Singh unified the Sikhs, establishing Lahore as the capital.
• Suraj Mal, a prominent Jat ruler, made Bharatpur a strong state.
• The Marathas became a powerful force under Shivaji in the 17th century.
• After Shivaji, the Peshwas ruled the Maratha empire from 1713 to 1761.
• The Marathas were defeated by Ahmad Shah Abdali in the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761.
• Shivaji established a centralized administration with the Ashtapradhan council of eight ministers.
• Maratha territories were divided into Swarajya (directly controlled) and Mughlai (lands accepting Maratha authority).