Class 10 History Chapter 2 Previous Year Questions - Nationalism in India

Ans: (b)
(1) Formation of Swaraj Party: 1 January 1923 
(2) Lahore Session of the Indian National Congress: 31 December 1929 
(3) Formation of Depressed Class Association: August 1930 
(4) Gandhi-Irwin Pact: 5 March 1931

Ans: Many cultural developments that caught the Indian people's attention had an impact on the rise of Indian Nationalism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries were:
(1) Cultural Renaissance Movements: In an effort to challenge colonial cultural hegemony, a number of cultural revival movements have developed throughout India to support indigenous customs, languages, and creations of art.
(2) Poetry and Writing: Indian poetry and writing contributed significantly to the uprising against colonial rule and the advancement of nationalist ideas. Poets and writers like Subramania Bharati, Rabindranath Tagore, and Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay used their writing to encourage a sense of solidarity among Indians as well as sentiments of patriotism and pride in Indian culture. For example, the song "Vande Mataram".
(3) Historical Narratives: In an effort to invalidate colonial narratives that depicted Indians as inferior and backward, historians and intellectuals reinterpreted Indian history to emphasise the accomplishments and contributions of Indian civilisation.
(4) Popular Culture and Mass Mobilisation: Famous nationalists such as Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Mahatma Gandhi used public speeches, cultural events, and large-scale gatherings to gain popular support for their cause and stoke opposition to colonial rule.
(5) Religious and Social Reform Movements: The ideas of social equality, religious tolerance, and human dignity were highlighted by religious and social reform movements like the Arya Samaj, Brahmo Samaj, and the movements headed by personalities like Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Mahatma Gandhi.

Ans: The First World War had significant implications for India's economic and political landscape:

• Increased defence budget: The war led to higher defence spending, which was financed through loans.
• Rising prices: Shortages caused prices to double between 1913 and 1918, resulting in hardship for many.
• Higher taxes: Customs duties and taxes were raised, contributing to the cost of living.
• Forced recruitment: Many were compelled to join the army, leading to widespread discontent.
• Food shortages: Crop failures resulted in acute shortages of food items.
• Epidemic spread: An influenza epidemic caused the death of millions.

These factors fostered a sense of anger and frustration among the Indian populace, setting the stage for future movements for independence.

Ans:

• Mahatma Gandhi found salt a powerful symbol that could unite the nation. On 31st January 1930, he sent a letter to Viceroy Irwin stating wide-ranging eleven demands.
• All classes of Indian society identified with the broad-ranging demands. The most stirring of all was the demand to abolish the salt tax.
• Salt was something consumed by the rich and the poor alike, and it was one of the most essential items of food. The tax on salt and the government monopoly over its production revealed the most oppressive face of British rule.
• In the Dandi march, the volunteers walked for 24 days, about 10 miles a day. Thousands came to hear Mahatma Gandhi wherever he stopped, and he told them what he meant by swaraj and urged them to peacefully defy the British.
• On 6th April, he reached Dandi and ceremonially violated the law by manufacturing salt from boiling seawater. This marked the beginning of the Civil Disobedience Movement.
• People were now asked not only to refuse cooperation with the British, as they had done in 1921-22, but also to break colonial laws.
• Thousands of people broke the salt law in different parts of the country, manufactured salt, and demonstrated in front of government salt factories.
• As the movement spread, foreign cloth was boycotted, and liquor shops were picketed. Peasants refused to pay revenue and chaukidari taxes, village officials resigned, and in many places, forest people violated forest laws.

Ans: The following points analyse the progress made by different strata of society in the civil disobedience movement:

• Rich Peasants: Their demand for a reduction in revenue was refused. For them, the fight for Swaraj was the fight against high revenue.
• Poor Peasants: Economic depression made it very difficult for them to pay rent to the landlords. Congress did not support them in the rent campaign fearing that it would upset the rich farmers. 
• Business Community: Their demand was for protection against exports and a fixed exchange ratio. To protect their business interests, they formed the Indian Industrial and Commercial Congress in 1920 and the Federation of the Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industries (FICCI) in 1927.
• Workers: As the Congress was seen as close to the industrialists, the workers did not participate in the movement except in Nagpur. 
• Women: There was large-scale participation of women in the Civil Disobedience Movement. They participated in the Salt March and other protest marches. They participated in picketing of foreign cloth and liquor shops.

Ans: The role of folklore and symbols played a significant role in the revival of nationalism in India during the late 19th century. 

• Folklore, songs, popular prints, and symbols served as powerful tools to mobilize and unite the Indian masses against British colonial rule. They helped in creating a sense of collective identity, pride, and resistance among the people.
• Folklore, which includes folk tales, legends, and myths, played a crucial role in shaping the nationalist sentiment. These stories often highlighted the valour, bravery, and sacrifice of Indian heroes and warriors, instilling a sense of pride and nationalism among the people. 
• They also emphasized the rich cultural heritage and history of India, reinforcing the idea of an independent and glorious past.
• Songs and ballads, another form of folklore, were widely used to spread nationalist ideas and mobilize the masses. 
• Nationalist poets and musicians composed songs that expressed the aspirations and struggles of the Indian people. These songs not only served as a medium of protest but also helped in creating a sense of unity and solidarity among the diverse Indian population.
• Popular prints, such as posters and images, also played a significant role in shaping nationalist sentiment. These prints depicted iconic figures like Rani Lakshmibai, Bhagat Singh, and Mahatma Gandhi, who became symbols of resistance and inspiration for the people. They were widely circulated and displayed, serving as visual reminders of the nationalist struggle and invoking a sense of pride and determination.
• Symbols, such as the national flag, the spinning wheel, and the slogan "Vande Mataram," became powerful representations of the nationalist movement. They were used to rally support and create a sense of collective identity among the people. The national flag, with its tricolour and the charkha, became a symbol of unity and freedom, while "Vande Mataram" became a rallying cry for the nationalist cause.

In conclusion, folklore and symbols played a crucial role in the revival of nationalism in India during the late 19th century. They helped in creating a sense of collective identity, pride, and resistance among the Indian masses, mobilizing them against British colonial rule. Folklore, songs, popular prints, and symbols served as powerful tools to spread nationalist ideas and inspire the people to fight for their independence.

Ans: People belonging to different communities, region and language groups in India develop a sense of collective belonging by the following ways: 
(1) The identity of the nation was allegorised and symbolised with the image of Bharat Mata. 
(2) Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay wrote ‘Vande Mataram’ as a hymn to the motherland and was included in his novel Ananda Math. 
(3) Moved by the Swadeshi movement, Abanindranath Tagore painted Bharat Mata and portrayed it as an ascetic figure; in which she is calm, composed, divine and spiritual. 
(4) Ideas of nationalism also developed through a movement to revive Indian folklore. 
(5) Icons and literary symbols played a significant role in unifying people and inspired them with a feeling of nationalism.

Ans: The Civil Disobedience Movement was sparked by several key events. 
Two significant causes include:

• Simon Commission: The formation of the Simon Commission, which had no Indian members, was seen as a direct insult to the Indian people and their aspirations for self-governance.
• Lala Lajpat Rai's Death: The brutal beating of Lala Lajpat Rai by police during a protest against the Simon Commission led to widespread outrage and intensified calls for mass civil disobedience.

Ans: Mahatma Gandhi's decision to join the Khilafat Andolan played a crucial role in broadening the scope and appeal of the Non-Cooperation Movement in India. Here are three arguments explaining this statement:

• Unity among different religious communities: The Khilafat Andolan was launched by Indian Muslims to protest against the British government's treatment of the Caliphate in Turkey. By supporting this movement, Gandhi aimed to create a united front of Hindus and Muslims against British rule. This helped in fostering communal harmony and strengthening the non-cooperation movement.
• Expansion of the movement to rural areas: The Khilafat Andolan had a significant impact in rural areas, where the influence of religious leaders was strong. By aligning with the Khilafat cause, Gandhi was able to mobilize support and participation from the rural population, thus expanding the reach of the non-cooperation movement beyond urban centres.
• Increased participation of youth and students: The Khilafat Andolan resonated strongly with the youth and students of India, who were deeply concerned about the fate of their fellow Muslims in Turkey. Gandhi's association with the Khilafat cause attracted a large number of young people to join the non-cooperation movement, bringing fresh energy and enthusiasm to the protests.

Ans: The Non-Cooperation Movement had significant effects on the economic front in India. The statement that the effects were more dramatic can be supported by the following examples:

• Boycott of foreign goods: As part of the non-cooperation movement, there was a widespread boycott of foreign goods. This led to a significant decrease in the import of foreign clothes between 1921 and 1922. The value of imported foreign clothes dropped from Rs. 102 crores to Rs. 57 crores during this period.
• Picketing of liquor shops: The movement also involved the picketing of liquor shops, which were seen as symbols of British influence and exploitation. This led to a decrease in the consumption of foreign liquor, affecting the revenue generated from its sales.
• Promotion of Indian textiles and handlooms: As people boycotted foreign clothes, there was a shift towards the use of Indian textiles and handloom products. The production of Indian textiles and handlooms increased, providing a boost to the domestic economy and empowering local artisans.

These examples demonstrate that the Non-Cooperation Movement had a significant impact on the economic front, leading to a reduction in the consumption of foreign goods and the promotion of Indian industries.

Ans: People's understanding of nation was of modern states, having centralized powers exercising sovereign control over their own territory.

Ans: The growth of modern nationalism in India was intimately connected to the anti-colonial movement. The sense of being oppressed under colonialism provided a shared bond that tied different groups together. The Congress under Mahatma Gandhi tried to unite these groups within one movement.

Ans: People in India developed a sense of collective belonging through their shared experiences and struggles with colonialism. The anti-colonial movement brought different groups together, despite their varied experiences and notions of freedom. The Congress under Mahatma Gandhi played a crucial role in forging these groups together within one movement, although there were conflicts along the way. Additionally, history, folklore, and new symbols and icons helped redefine the boundaries of communities and create a sense of collective belonging. 

Ans: The spread of the Non-Cooperation Movementin the countryside involved several key developments:

• In Awadh, peasants were led by Baba Ramchandra against talukdars and landlords who imposed high rents and various cesses.
• Peasants faced begar (forced labour) and lacked security as tenants, often being evicted without notice.
• The movement called for a reduction in revenue, the abolition of begar, and a social boycott of oppressive landlords.
• Jawaharlal Nehru visited villages in Awadh to support the movement and understand local grievances.
• By October, the Oudh Kisan Sabha was established, rapidly expanding to over 300 branches in the region.
• However, the Congress leadership was concerned about the movement's direction, as it led to violence against landlords and merchants.

Ans: The Civil Disobedience Movement was one of the most significant movements launched by Mahatma Gandhi in the course of India’s freedom struggle in 1930. The two main causes of the civil disobedience movement are: 

• The constitution of Simon's commission with no Indians and the death of Lala Lajpat rai while protesting against the commission enraged the entire nation.
• In the Lahore session, the demand of Purna Swaraj was declared, thus the civil disobedience movement was launched as the first step to fulfil this goal.

Ans: Mahatma Gandhi decided to call off the Civil Disobedience Movement in 1931 because he reached a pact, known as the Gandhi-Irwin Pact, with the British Viceroy, Lord Irwin. As part of this pact, the British agreed to release political prisoners, allow the participation of Congress in the Second Round Table Conference, and lift the ban on the salt satyagraha. Gandhi believed that this was a significant step forward and decided to suspend the movement to give negotiations a chance.

Ans: Freedom was considered an inalienable right of the Indian people because, like any other people, they believed they had the right to enjoy the fruits of their labour, have the necessities of life, and have full opportunities for growth. They believed that if any government deprived them of these rights and oppressed them, they had the right to alter or abolish it.

Ans: Purna Swaraj, or Complete Independence, was considered essential by the people of India because they believed that the British government in India had not only deprived them of their freedom but also based itself on the exploitation of the masses. They saw complete independence as the only way to free themselves from economic, political, cultural, and spiritual ruin caused by British rule.

Ans: The Lahore Session of Congress (1930) was significant because, during this session, the Congress decided to observe 26th January 1930 as the Purna Swaraj Day or the day of Complete Independence. This declaration marked a significant milestone in the Indian freedom struggle and set the stage for the future demand for complete independence from British rule.

Ans:
(i) The nationalist histories urged the readers to take pride in India’s great achievements in the past and struggle to change the miserable conditions of life under British rule.
(ii) In the nineteenth century the Indian nationalists began recording folk songs sung by bards and they toured different villages to gather folk songs and legends.
(iii) They believe that tales give a true picture of traditional culture that has been corrupted and damaged by outsiders.
(iv) Indians began to look into the past to discover India’s greatest achievements.
(v) They wrote about the glorious developments in ancient times when art and architecture, science and mathematics, religion and culture, law and philosophy, crafts and trade flourished.

Ans: The 'nation' became a reality in the minds of people through united struggles and various cultural processes. The experience of united struggles helped people develop a sense of collective belonging and identify themselves as part of a nation. Additionally, history, fiction, folklore, songs, popular prints, and symbols played a significant role in shaping the idea of the nation and capturing people's imagination.

Ans: Nationalism captured the people's imagination through cultural processes such as history, fiction, folklore, songs, popular prints, and symbols. These cultural elements created a sense of identity and pride in one's nation. Nationalist leaders used these cultural tools to evoke emotions, inspire unity, and mobilize people for the cause of nationalism.

Ans: People belonging to different groups developed a sense of collective belonging through shared experiences of united struggles and cultural processes. The use of folklore, songs, popular prints, symbols, and other cultural elements helped bridge the gaps between different groups and create a sense of unity and belonging. These cultural expressions provided a common ground for people from diverse backgrounds to connect and identify themselves as part of a larger collective.

Ans: After returning to India, Mahatma Gandhi initiated several satyagraha movements:

• Champaran Movement (1917): Gandhi travelled to Champaran in Bihar to support peasants protesting against the harsh plantation system.
• Kheda Movement (1918): In Gujarat's Kheda district, he organised a satyagraha for peasants affected by crop failure and a plague epidemic, who were unable to pay their taxes.
• Ahemdabad Movement (1918): Gandhi also led a satyagraha among cotton mill workers in Ahmedabad to address their grievances.

Ans: Gandhiji supported the 'Khilafat' issue as he saw it as an opportunity to bring Muslims under the umbrella of a unified national movement. He believed that by supporting the Khilafat cause, which aimed to protect the political and territorial rights of the Ottoman Caliphate, he could build a strong alliance between Hindus and Muslims and strengthen the fight for India's independence.

Ans: The two main leaders of the 'Khilafat Committee' formed in 1919 were Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali.

Ans: Satyagraha was the weapon of Gandhiji to fight peacefully against the British Empire in India.

Ans: According to Mahatma Gandhi's book Hind Swaraj, British rule in India was established with the cooperation of Indians and survived only because of this cooperation.

Ans: Gandhiji proposed that non-cooperation should unfold in stages. It should start with the surrender of titles awarded by the government and a boycott of civil services, the army, police, courts, legislative councils, schools, and foreign goods. If the government responded with repression, a full civil disobedience campaign would be launched. This idea aimed to mobilize popular support and escalate the movement gradually.

Ans: (d)

1. Champaran Satyagraha happened in 1917.

2. The Government of India Act was passed in 1919.

3. The Simon Commission came to India in 1928.

4. The Lahore Session of INC in 1929 demanded Purna Swaraj (complete independence).

Ans: The Inland Emigration Act of 1859 caused significant issues for plantation workers due to its strict limitations on their freedom of movement. 
Key points include:

• Workers needed a pass from their employers to leave the tea gardens.
• This restriction made it hard for them to visit their families.
• It also prevented them from seeking other job opportunities.
• As a result, many workers felt trapped in exploitative conditions.

Ans: The association formed by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar for Dalits in 1930 is the Depressed Class Association.

Ans: For plantation workers in Assam, Swaraj (freedom) meant the right to move freely in and out of the confined space of the tea gardens where they were enclosed. It also meant retaining a link with their native village. These workers were restricted by the Inland Emigration Act of 1859, which prohibited them from leaving the tea gardens without permission. However, upon hearing about the Non-Cooperation Movement, thousands of workers defied the authorities, left the plantations, and headed home with the belief that Gandhi Raj (rule) was coming and everyone would be given land in their own villages.

Ans: The Inland Emigration Act of 1859 served as a barrier to the freedom of plantation workers in Assam. This act prohibited them from leaving the tea gardens without permission, which was rarely granted. It confined the workers to the plantations and restricted their movement, denying them the freedom to return to their native villages or explore opportunities outside the gardens.

Ans: The participation of workers in the Non-Cooperation Movement had a significant outcome:

• Thousands of plantation workers in Assam defied colonial authorities.
• They left the tea gardens, believing that Gandhi Raj would grant them land in their villages.
• However, their journey was interrupted by a railway and steamer strike.
• Many were arrested by the police and faced brutal beatings.
• Despite not reaching their destination, their actions demonstrated their defiance against colonial rule.
• This participation reflected their aspirations for a better future.

Ans: (a)
Industrialists had a good relationship with the Congress and did not support the strike or protests that could harm their businesses. As a result, many industrial workers did not actively participate in the Civil Disobedience Movement.

Ans: (d)
The Simon Commission was established to examine the functioning of the constitutional system in India and to suggest necessary changes. Its primary aim was to address the growing demands for political reform in response to the nationalist movement.

Ans: Gandhiji opposed the British salt tax and its monopoly over its production. He demanded the abolition of the salt tax. To protest against this unjust law, he organized the famous Dandi March, where he and his followers marched to the Arabian Sea and made their own salt by evaporating seawater.

Ans: The rich peasants supported the Civil Disobedience Movement due to several key reasons:

• They were hit hard by the trade depression and falling prices of commercial crops.
• As producers, they faced significant economic hardships.
• They viewed the movement as a way to combat the exploitation and oppression they experienced.
• The refusal of the government to reduce revenue demands led to widespread resentment.

These factors motivated them to actively participate and organise their communities in support of the movement.

Ans: The Civil Disobedience Movement had certain limitations, including:
(a) Lack of industrialists' participation: The industrialists did not actively participate in the movement, which affected its economic impact.
(b) Limited demands of workers: The Congress was reluctant to include the demands of workers as part of its program of struggle, which limited the scope of the movement.

Ans: (b)
Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay wrote the patriotic song Vande Mataram, which became a symbol of India's struggle for independence. It was included in his novel Anandamath.

Ans: The Justice Party in Madras (Chennai) wanted to contest the council elections to gain power and authority which was only available to Brahmans till then

Ans: Merchants burnt foreign clothes in huge bonfires, refusing to buy foreign goods completely and even picketed liquor shops. Import of foreign goods reduced to half due to their dramatic reaction.

Ans: The boycott movement affected foreign trade negatively. 
(1) Imports of clothes were reduced to half in initial value. Businessmen refused to finance foreign trade or wear foreign goods. 
(2) People began discarding imported clothes and started wearing only Indian made fabrics from mills and handlooms.

Ans: Peasants affected from crop failure and plague epidemic wanted relaxation in revenue collection. Mahatma Gandhi organised a Satyagraha with these peasants against revenue collectors for the same in 1917.

Ans:  The First World War had significant implications for India's economic and political landscape:

• The war resulted in a dramatic increase in defence spending, funded by war loans and higher taxes.
• Customs duties were raised, and income tax was introduced.
• Prices soared, doubled between 1913 and 1918, causing severe hardship for ordinary people.
• Villages were required to supply soldiers, leading to widespread anger due to forced recruitment.
• Crops failed in many regions, resulting in acute food shortages.
• This crisis was exacerbated by an influenza epidemic, with 12 to 13 million people perishing from famines and disease.

Ans: The First World War had significant effects on the economic and political landscape of India:

• Increased defence expenditure: The war led to a rise in the defence budget, forcing the government to take out war loans.
• Rising prices: Shortages during the war caused prices to double between 1913 and 1918, resulting in hardship for many.
• Higher taxes: Customs duties and taxes were raised, contributing to the overall price increase.
• Forced recruitment: Many people were compelled to join the army, leading to widespread discontent.
• Food shortages: Crop failures resulted in acute shortages of food items.
• Epidemics: The spread of disease during this period caused the deaths of millions.

Ans: Dr. B.R. Ambedkar was instrumental in organising the Dalits into the Depressed Classes Association in 1930. His achievements include:

• Ambedkar was a member of the Mahar caste, one of the untouchable or Dalit castes in India.
• He became a strong advocate against oppression, using both politics and writing to uplift the Dalits.
• His notable work, The Annihilation of Caste, was a powerful critique of the caste system.
• At the second Round Table Conference, he demanded separate electorates for Dalits, which led to a significant clash with Mahatma Gandhi.
• When the British government agreed to his demand, Gandhi began a fast, believing that separate electorates would hinder Dalit integration into society.
• Ultimately, Ambedkar accepted Gandhi's position, resulting in the Poona Pact of September 1932.
• This pact provided reserved seats for the Depressed Classes (later known as the Scheduled Castes) in legislative councils, although they were to be voted in by the general electorate.
• Ambedkar believed in political empowerment as a solution to the issues faced by Dalits, contrasting Gandhi's approach of seeking a change of heart among upper castes.

Ambedkar's efforts were crucial in raising awareness and advocating for the rights of the Dalit community, laying the groundwork for future movements.

Ans: (i) Plantation workers had their own understanding of Mahatma Gandhi and the notion of Swaraj. For plantation workers, freedom meant the right to move freely in and out of the confined space in which they were enclosed, and it meant retaining a link with the village from which they had come.
(ii) Under the Inland Emigration Act of 1859, plantation workers were not permitted to leave the tea gardens without permission, and in fact they were rarely given such permission.
(iii) When they heard of the Non-Cooperation Movement, thousands of workers defied the authorities, left the plantations and headed home.
(iv) They believed that Gandhi Raj was coming and everyone would be given land in their own villages.

Ans: Civil Disobedience is the active, professed refusal of a citizen to obey certain laws, demands, orders or commands of a government. In India, it refers to the movement led by Gandhiji against the British rule.
Both the rich and the poor peasants did not participate in the Civil Disobedience movement because of varying reasons. Their reasons were as follows 

Rich Peasants: 
(i) They were hit by depressed prices of the food grains.
(ii) They were unable to pay the land revenue. Their demand for a reduction in revenue was refused.
(iii) For them fighting for Swaraj was the fight against high revenue.
(iv) They were disappointed with the calling off of the civil disobedience movement and were reluctant to join it back upon its relaunch.

Poor Peasants: 
(i) Economic depression made it very difficult for them to pay rent to the landlords
(ii) Congress did not support their no-rent campaign fearing that it would upset the rich farmers.

Ans: The limitations of the Civil Disobedience Movement included:

• Neglect of Dalits: The Congress overlooked the needs of the Dalits and depressed classes to appease high-caste Hindus, resulting in limited participation from these groups.
• Muslim Participation: The Congress's ties with Hindu nationalist groups led to reduced involvement from Muslims, who felt alienated.
• Community Distrust: Distrust between communities grew, causing many Muslims to refrain from joining the movement.
• Discontent Among Peasants: Wealthy peasants were dissatisfied when the movement ended in 1931 without changes to revenue rates, leading to poor participation from landless peasants.
• Industrial Workers: The Congress's close relationship with the business class alienated the industrial working class, resulting in minimal involvement in the movement.

Ans: (a)
The Swaraj Party was formed in 1923 by prominent leaders like C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru. They believed that it was important for Congress members to participate in the legislative councils established by the British in order to voice Indian interests and obstruct colonial policies from within. This approach, called "Council Entry," aimed to use the councils as a platform to demand reforms and fight colonial policies.
Thus, the correct answer is (a) Wanted members of Congress to return to Council Politics.

Ans: 

Congress's reluctance to allow women in authority:

• For a long time, Congress believed that women's primary role was to care for the home and family.
• Gandhiji viewed women as essential as mothers and wives, limiting their roles in leadership.
• Congress was mainly interested in having women present for symbolic purposes.

Women's participation in the Civil Disobedience Movement:

• During the Salt March, many women left their homes to listen to Gandhiji.
• Women took part in protest marches, made salt, and picketed foreign cloth and liquor shops.
• Some women even faced imprisonment for their involvement.

Ans: (a) Peasants of Awadh:
(i) They participated under the leadership of Baba Ramchandra - a Sanyasi.
(ii) Their demands were reduction of revenue, and abolition of begar.
(iii) Activities: Nai-dhobi bandhs were organised. Oudh Kisan Sabha was formed.
(iv) Results: As the struggle became violent, the Congress was unhappy
(b) Tribals in Gudem Hills of Andhra Pradesh:
(i) The causes were the closure of forest areas, restrictions on livelihoods, and begar.
(ii) Activities: They attacked police stations and killed British officials. They carried guerrilla warfare.
(iii) Their leader was Alluri Sitaram Raju. He was captured and executed in 1924.
(iv) Importance: Tribal people could not achieve their objectives as their violent activities were disapproved by Congress.

Ans: (a) In the towns, the middle classes participated in the movement in the following ways:
(i) Students left the schools and colleges. Headmasters and teachers resigned. Lawyers gave up their practice.
(ii) Elections were boycotted except in Madras.
(iii) Foreign goods were boycotted.
(iv) Liquor shops were picketed.
(v) Foreign clothes were burnt in huge bonfires.
(vi) Many traders refused to import foreign cloth or trade in foreign goods.
(b) The economic effects of the Non-Cooperation Movement are given below:
(i) The import of foreign cloth decreased from Rs. 102 crore to Rs. 57 crore between 1921 and 1922.
(ii) Merchants and traders refused to trade in foreign goods.
(iii) People started wearing only Indian clothes. This led to increased production by the Indian textile mills and handlooms.

Ans: Labour that villager was forced to contribute without any payment.

Ans: Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay

Ans: The idea of Satyagraha emphasised the power of truth and the need to search for the truth.

Ans: 'Hind Swaraj'.

Ans: The Poona Pact was an agreement reached in September 1932, which provided reserved seats for the Depressed Classes (now known as Scheduled Castes) in both provincial and central legislative councils. 
Key points include:

• Dr. B.R. Ambedkar initially demanded separate electorates for dalits.
• Mahatma Gandhi opposed this, fearing it would hinder integration into society.
• After negotiations, Ambedkar accepted Gandhi's position, leading to the Poona Pact.
• Reserved seats were to be filled by votes from the general electorate.

This pact was significant in the political empowerment of the dalit community, although apprehensions about the Congress-led national movement persisted.

Ans: Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay wrote the song ‘Vande Mataram’.

Key points about the song:

• Written in the 1870s as a hymn to the motherland.
• Originally included in his novel Anandamath.
• Gained popularity during the Swadeshi movement in Bengal.

Ans: Hand-spun khadi provides significant employment opportunities for weavers through the following means:

• It operates as a cottage industry, allowing weavers to work from home.
• This setup enables flexibility in work hours, making it accessible for many.
• By promoting local production, it creates a demand for skilled weavers.

Overall, hand-spun khadi supports the livelihood of numerous weavers by integrating them into the local economy.

Ans: The First World War significantly altered the economic landscape in India:

• Defence expenditure surged due to the war, leading to increased financial demands on the government.
• Taxes were raised, putting additional pressure on the populace.
• Custom duties were increased, affecting trade and prices.
• The introduction of income tax marked a new financial obligation for many Indians.
• Villages were compelled to supply soldiers, resulting in forced recruitment that caused widespread discontent.

These changes contributed to economic hardship, with prices doubling between 1913 and 1918, leading to severe struggles for ordinary people.

Ans: Reasons for the launching of the Non-Cooperation Movement:
(i) To support Khilafat agitation.
(ii) To protest against the Rowlatt Act.
(iii) To redress the wrong done in Punjab.
(iv) The dissatisfaction with the Government of India act of 1919.
(v) Demand for Swaraj

Ans: 

Contribution of Gandhiji towards Satyagraha:

• The concept of satyagraha highlighted the power of truth and the importance of seeking it.
• It proposed that if a cause is just and the struggle is against injustice, physical force is unnecessary.
• A satyagrahi could achieve victory through non-violence, appealing to the conscience of the oppressor.
• Persuasion, rather than coercion, was key to making oppressors recognise the truth.
• Gandhi believed that this principle of non-violence could unite all Indians.

After returning to India, Gandhi led several successful satyagraha movements:

• In 1917, he inspired peasants in Champaran, Bihar, to resist oppressive plantation practices.
• He organised a movement in Kheda, Gujarat, where peasants faced crop failure and were unable to pay taxes.
• In 1918, he initiated a satyagraha among cotton mill workers in Ahmedabad.

Gandhi's approach was rooted in the belief that non-violence is the supreme duty, and he demonstrated this through his actions and teachings.

Ans: A sense of collective belonging developed during the freedom movement through various means:

• It emerged from the experience of united struggles against colonial rule.
• Cultural processes, such as history, fiction, folklore, and songs, played a significant role in shaping nationalism.
• Popular prints and symbols contributed to the creation of a national identity.
• The figure of Bharat Mata symbolised the identity of the nation.
• The song Vande Mataram became popular during the Swadeshi movement in Bengal.
• Icons and symbols helped unify people and foster a sense of nationalism.
• Reviving Indian folklore also contributed to the development of nationalist ideas.
• Folk tales sung by bards in villages depicted traditional culture, enhancing national pride.
• Reinterpretation of history instilled a sense of nationalism.
• Nationalist histories encouraged pride in India's past achievements and motivated the struggle against British oppression.

Ans: Nationwide Satyagraha was decided to be launched against the proposed Rowlatt Act 1919 because:
(i) This act had been hurriedly passed through the Imperial Legislative Council despite the united opposition of the Indian members.
(ii) It gave the government enormous powers to repress political activities.
(iii) Allowed detention of political prisoners without trial for two years.

Ans: The First World War significantly impacted India's economy, creating numerous challenges:

• Increased Defence Expenditure: The war led to a substantial rise in defence spending, funded by war loans and higher taxes.
• Rising Prices: Prices surged during the war, doubling from 1913 to 1918, which caused severe hardship for ordinary people.
• Forced Recruitment: Villages were compelled to supply soldiers, resulting in widespread anger due to forced recruitment in rural areas.
• Crop Failures: Between 1918-1920 and 1920-21, many regions faced crop failures, leading to acute food shortages, exacerbated by an influenza epidemic.

According to the 1921 census, approximately 12 to 13 million people died from famines and the epidemic during this period.

Ans: Reasons for Gandhiji relaunching of Civil Disobedience Movement
(i) The negotiations with regard to India’s freedom broke down in the Second Round Table Conference held in London.
(ii) Back in India, he discovered that the government had begun a new cycle of repression.
(iii) Ghaffar Khan and Jawaharlal Nehru were put to jail.
(iv) The Congress had been declared illegal.
(v) A series of measures had been imposed to prevent meetings, demonstrations and boycotts. In such a situation he decided to relaunch the Civil Disobedience Movement.

Ans: Satyagraha Movement Against The Rowlatt Act:
(i) Gandhiji in 1919 decided to launch a nationwide satyagraha against the proposed Rowlatt Act (1919).
(ii) Mahatma Gandhi wanted non-violent civil disobedience against such unjust laws, which would start with a hartal on 6 April.
(iii) Rallies were organised in various cities.
(iv) Workers went on strike in railway workshops, and shops closed down.
(v) lines of communication such as the railways and telegraph would be disrupted.
(vi) The British administration decided to clamp down on nationalists.
(vii) Local leaders were put to jail.
(viii) On 13 April the Jallianwalla Bagh incident took place.
(ix) Crowds took to the streets in many towns.
(x) The government started brutal repression.
(xi) At the Calcutta session of the Congress in September 1920, he felt the need to start a Non- non-cooperation movement in support of Khilafat as well as for Swaraj.

Ans: Role of folklore:

• Folklore, songs, and popular prints significantly contributed to the rise of nationalism.
• The identity of India became closely linked with the image of Bharat Mata.
• In the 1870s, Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay wrote 'Vande Mataram', a hymn celebrating the motherland.
• Nationalists sought to revive Indian folklore to strengthen national identity.

These elements helped foster a sense of pride and unity among the people during the freedom struggle.

Ans: The Salt Satyagraha became an effective tool of resistance against British colonialism in India during 1930 due to several key factors:

• Universal Appeal: Salt was a basic necessity consumed by both the rich and the poor, making it a unifying issue.
• Salt March: Mahatma Gandhi led a 240-mile march to Dandi with 78 volunteers, symbolising defiance against British laws.
• Ceremonial Violation: On 6th April, Gandhi made salt by boiling seawater, openly breaking the law.
• Widespread Participation: Thousands across India joined the movement, breaking the salt law and protesting at government factories.
• Broader Boycotts: The movement also involved boycotting foreign cloth and picketing liquor shops.
• Government Response: The colonial government arrested Congress leaders, including Gandhi, leading to increased public anger.
• Brutal Repression: The government's harsh measures highlighted the oppressive nature of British rule, galvanising further resistance.

These elements combined to demonstrate the effectiveness of the Salt Satyagraha as a powerful form of resistance against colonialism.

Ans: Role of business classes in the ‘Civil Disobedience Movement’:
(i) The business classes reacted against colonial policies that restricted business activities.
(ii) They wanted protection against imports of foreign goods and a rupee sterling foreign exchange ratio that would discourage imports.
(iii) In order to organise business interests, they formed the Indian Industrial and Commercial Congress in 1920 and the Federation of the Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industries (FICCI) in 1927.
(iv) They gave financial assistance for the movement.
(v) They refused to buy and sell imported goods.

Ans: The colonial government took several actions in response to the Dandi March and the subsequent Civil Disobedience Movement:

• The government began arresting Congress leaders one by one, which caused violent clashes in many areas.
• When Mahatma Gandhi was arrested, industrial workers in Sholapur attacked police posts and other symbols of British rule.
• In response to the unrest, the government adopted a policy of brutal suppression.
• Peaceful satyagrahis faced violence, with many women and children beaten, and around 100,000 people arrested.
• Abdul Ghaffar Khan, a close associate of Gandhi, was also arrested in April 1930.
• Angry protests erupted in Peshawar, leading to police firing and numerous casualties.

Ans: The Salt March led by Mahatma Gandhi was a significant event that united the nation for several reasons:

• Inclusivity: It brought together all classes of Indian society in a common cause.
• Defiance: Gandhi openly broke the salt law by marching from Sabarmati to Dandi.
• Widespread Participation: Thousands across the country also broke the salt law, made salt, and protested at government factories.
• Boycotts: The movement encouraged the boycott of foreign clothes and the picketing of liquor shops.
• Tax Resistance: Peasants refused to pay taxes, including revenue and chaukidari taxes.
• Resignations: Many village officials resigned in protest.
• Forest Law Violations: Forest communities defied laws by collecting wood and grazing cattle in protected areas.
• Social Unity: Various social groups, including rich and poor peasants, actively participated.
• Women and Workers: Business class workers from Nagpur and women also joined the movement.

Ans: Reasons for launching the Civil Disobedience Movement:

• Economic depression of 1930 impacted many Indians.
• The Simon Commission arrived without any Indian representatives.
• The British offered vague Dominion status, which did not satisfy Indian demands.
• Decisions made at the Lahore session of the Congress in 1929 called for action.
• The British imposed a salt tax, which angered many Indians.

Ans: The effects of the Non-cooperation Movement on the economic front were significant:

• Foreign goods were boycotted, liquor shops were picketed, and foreign cloth was burned in large bonfires.
• The import of foreign cloth halved between 1921 and 1922, with its value dropping from Rs 102 crore to Rs 57 crore.
• In many areas, merchants and traders refused to trade in foreign goods.
• As the boycott spread, people began to discard imported clothes and wear only Indian ones, leading to an increase in production at Indian textile mills and handlooms.

Ans: During the First World War, many men from Indian villages were forcefully recruited into the British army for several reasons:

• Most British soldiers were already engaged in combat.
• India had a large population, providing a strong workforce.
• Indian soldiers required less maintenance and were paid significantly less.
• This made it financially easier for the British to recruit them.

As a result, many Indian men were compelled to join the British army during the war.

Ans: Mahatma Gandhi initiated the concept of satyagraha in 1919 in response to several injustices faced by Indians under British rule. 
The key reasons include:

• His successful experience in South Africa, where he fought against racist laws using non-violent methods.
• The belief that truth and non-violence could effectively challenge oppression.
• Growing discontent among Indians due to oppressive measures, including the Rowlatt Act, which allowed for detention without trial.
• The need to unite Indians against injustice and promote civil disobedience.

Gandhi's approach aimed to appeal to the conscience of the oppressor, encouraging a struggle based on moral strength rather than physical force.

Ans: To repress the Rowlatt Satyagrahis, the British colonial government employed harsh tactics:

• Many satyagrahis, including Mahatma Gandhi, were arrested and detained.
• Armed forces were deployed to suppress protests.
• Violence was used against peaceful demonstrators, culminating in the Jallianwala Bagh massacre in Amritsar.

Ans: Mahatma Gandhiji designed the “Swaraj Flag” by 1921.
Features:
(i) It had tricolours-Red, Green and White
(ii) It had a spinning wheel in the centre.
(iii) It represents the Gandhian idea of self-help.
(iv) It had become a symbol of defiance.

Ans: The Civil Disobedience Movement was different from the Non-Cooperation Movement:
Non-Cooperation Movement:
(i) The people were asked not to cooperate with the government.
(ii) Foreign goods were boycotted.
(iii) Liquor shops were picketed.
(iv) Foreign cloth burnt in huge bonfires.
(v) In many places merchants and traders refused to trade on foreign goods or finance foreign traders.
(vi) Students left the government-owned schools and colleges.
(vii) Lawyers gave up legal practices.
Civil Disobedience Movement:
(i) People were asked to break colonial laws.
(ii) The countrymen broke the salt law.
(iii) Peasants refused to pay revenue and chaukidari tax.
(iv ) Village officials resigned from their jobs.
(v) Forest people violated forest rules and laws.

Ans: During the Swadeshi Movement in Bengal the flag designed was the Tricolour flag.
The three features of the flag were:
(i) The colour of the flag was — Red, Green and Yellow.
(ii) It represented eight provinces in British India.
(iii) It had a crescent moon representing Hindus and Muslims.

Ans: (A) (i) They did not participate in the movement in large numbers except in the Nagpur region.
(ii) As the industrialists came closer to Congress, the workers stayed aloof.
(iii) Some workers did participate in the Civil Disobedience Movement in the following activities :
(а) Boycott of foreign goods as part of their own movements against low wages and poor working conditions.
(b) Railway strikes in 1930.
(c) Dock workers strike in 1932.

Ans: The plantation workers in Assam had their own understanding of Mahatma Gandhi and the notion of Swaraj.
(i) For plantation workers in Assam, freedom meant the right to move freely in and out of the confined space in which they were enclosed.
(ii) Swaraj meant relating a link with the village from which they had come.
(iii) Under the Inland Emigration Act of 1859 plantation workers were not permitted to leave the Tea Gardens without permission.
(iv) When they heard of the Non-Cooperation movement thousands of workers defined the authorities, left plantations and headed home.
(v) They believed that Gandhi Raj was coming and everyone would be given land in their own village.

Ans: (i) This sense of collective belonging came partly through the experience of united struggles and growing anger among people against the colonial government.
(ii) But there were also a variety of cultural processes through which nationalism captured people’s imagination:
(a) The identity of the nation is symbolised in a figure or image of Bharat Mata created through literature, songs, paintings, etc.
(b) Movement to revive Indian folklore to enhance nationalist sentiments.
(c) Role of icons and symbols in unifying people and inspiring in them a feeling of nationalism.
(d) Creating a feeling of nationalism was through reinterpretation of history.

Ans: Satyagraha against the proposed Rowlatt Act 1919:
(i) The Rowlatt Act was hurriedly passed through the Imperial Legislative Council.
(ii) Indian members unitedly opposed it.
(iii) It gave the government enormous powers to repress political activities.
(iv) It allowed the detention of political prisoners without trials for two years.
Organization of Satyagrah:
(i) Mahatma Gandhi wanted non-violent civil disobedience against such unjust laws.
(ii) It was started with a ‘Hartal’ on 6th April.
(iii) Rallies were organized in various cities.
(iv) Workers went on strike in railway workshops.
(v) Shops closed down.

Ans: Mahatma Gandhi viewed salt as a powerful symbol to unite the nation. On 31 January 1930, he wrote to Viceroy Irwin, outlining eleven demands, with the most significant being the abolition of the salt tax.

• Salt was a basic necessity for both the rich and the poor.
• The tax on salt represented the oppressive nature of British rule.
• Irwin refused to negotiate, prompting Gandhi to initiate the famous salt march.
• The march covered over 240 miles from Sabarmati to Dandi.
• Gandhi was joined by 78 volunteers and thousands of supporters along the way.
• On 6 April, he reached Dandi and publicly defied the law by making salt from seawater.

This act marked the beginning of the Civil Disobedience Movement, encouraging widespread participation in resisting British laws.

Ans: Role of cultural processes in making of nationalism in India;
(i) The sense of collective belonging came partly through the experience of united struggles.
(ii) There were also a variety of cultural processes through which nationalism captured people's imagination.
(iii) History, fiction, folklore and songs, popular prints and symbols played a part in the making of nationalism.
(iv) The identity of the nation is most often symbolised in a figure or an image.
(v) This helped to create an image with which people could identify the nation.

Ans: Mahatma Gandhi decided to call off the civil Disobedience Movement because:
(i) Worried by the development of the civil Disobedience movement the colonial government began arresting the congress leaders one by one.
(ii) This led to violent clashes in many places.
(iii) When Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, a devoted disciple of Mahatma Gandhi was arrested (April 1930) angry crowds demonstrated in the street of Peshawar, facing armoured cars and police firing. Many were killed.
(iv) A month later, when Mahatma Gandhi was arrested, industrial workers in Sholapur attacked police force municipal buildings, law courts, railway stations and all other structures that symbolised British rule.
(v) A frightened government responded with the policy of brutal repression.
(vi) The peaceful satyagrahi were attacked, women and children were beaten and about 1 lakh people were arrested.
Under these circumstances, Mahatma Gandhi called off the Civil Disobedience Movement.

Ans: Mahatma Gandhi relaunched the Civil Disobedience Movement with great apprehension:
(i) In December 1931, Gandhiji went to London for the Round Table Conference, but the negotiations broke down and he returned disappointed.
(ii) In India, he discovered that the government had begun a new cycle of repression.
(iii) Abdul Ghaffar Khan and Jawahar Lai Nehru were both in jail.
(iv) The Congress had been declared illegal.
(v) A series of measures had been imposed to prevent meetings, demonstrations and boycotts.

Ans: Non-cooperation movement in cities:
(i) The movement started with middle-class participation in the cities.
(ii) Thousands of students left government-controlled schools and colleges, headmasters and teachers resigned, and lawyers gave up their legal practices.
(iii) The council elections were boycotted in most provinces except Madras.
(iv) Foreign goods were boycotted, liquor shops picketed, and foreign cloth burnt in huge bonfires. The import of foreign cloth halved.
(v) In many places, merchants and traders refused to trade in foreign goods or finance foreign trade.
(vi) As the boycott movement spread, and people began discarding imported clothes and wearing only Indian ones, production of Indian textile mills and handlooms went up.

Ans: First World War created a new economic and political situation in India
(i) It led to huge increases in defence expenditure which was financed by war loans and increasing taxes.
(ii) Custom duties were raised
(iii) Income tax introduced.
(iv) Through the war years prices increased-doubling between 1913 and 1918 - leading to extreme hardship for the common people.
(v) Villagers were called upon to supply soldiers.
(vi) Forced recruitment in rural areas caused widespread anger.
(vii) Crops failed in many parts of India resulting in an acute shortage of food. This was accompanied by influenced evidence.

Ans: (a) Reasons:
(i) Under the Inland Emigration Act of 1859, plantation workers in Assam were not permitted to leave the tea gardens without permission. So they wanted freedom to move freely.
(ii) To retain a link with their village.
(iii) To own land in their own village.
(b) Events:
(i) During the non-cooperation movement, thousands of workers defied the authorities. They left the plantations and headed home.
(ii) They, however, never reached their destination. Stranded on the way by a railway and steamer strike, they were caught by the police and brutally beaten up.
(c) Interpretation of Swaraj:
(i) The workers of Assam interpreted Swaraj in their own manner for them it was to break the ties of British bondage.
(ii) For them it also meant, freedom of movement from plantation areas of their own villages.

Ans: (a) In 1928, the Simon Commission under Sir John Simon was constituted by the Tory government in Britain in response to the nationalist movement.
(b) The main aim of the Commission was to look into the functioning of the constitutional system in India and suggest changes.
(c) Arguments in favour of Indian reaction:
(i) The commission did not have a single Indian member.
(ii) All members were British.
(iii) Not to include an Indian was against the spirit of nationalists in India. Hence demonstration against the commission was justified.

Ans: (a) The various activities that took place during the first phase of the movement were as mentioned below:
(i) Violation of salt laws by manufacturing salt.
(ii) Boycott of foreign cloth.
(iii) Picketing of liquor shops.
(iv) Refusal of peasants to pay revenue and chaukidari taxes.
(v) Resignation of village officials.
(vi) Violation of forest laws and going to Reserved forests to collect wood and grazing cattle.
(b) Policy of the government:
(i) The government adopted a repressive policy.
(ii) It arrested the Congress leaders.
(iii) Abdul Gaffar Khan, a devout disciple of Gandhiji, was arrested in April 1930.
(iv) In police firing many people were killed.
(v) In Sholapur, people attacked lawcourts, railway stations and the structures that symbolised British rule.
(vi) About 100,000 people were arrested.
(c) As a result of the government’s repressive policy, Gandhiji once again decided to call off the movement. Gandhi-Irwin Pact was signed on 5th March 1931.

Ans: (a) Rich peasants:
(i) The rich communities like the Fatidars of Gujarat and the Jats of Uttar Pradesh were producers of commercial crops. They were very hard hit by the trade depression and falling prices.
(ii) They were not in a position to pay revenue to the government. They joined the movement in order to reduce revenue.
(b) Poor peasantry: Poor peasantry joined the movement in the hope that their unpaid rent to the landlord would be remitted because due to the Depression, they were not in a position to pay the rent.
(c) Business classes:
(i) They wanted protection against imports of foreign goods and a rupee-sterling foreign exchange ratio that would discourage imports.
(ii) They formed the Indian Industrial and Commercial Congress in 1920 and the Federation of the Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industries (FICCI) in 1927.
(iii) They refused to sell or buy imported goods.
(d) Workers:
(i) The participation by the workers in Civil Disobedience was limited. They participated in the Civil Disobedience Movement against low wages and deplorable working conditions.
(ii) There were strikes by railway workers, dock workers and mine workers in the Chota Nagpur regions.
(iii) Women: They participated in Protest Marches, manufactured salt and picketed foreign cloth and liquor shops.

Ans: Simon Commission was greeted with the slogan ‘Simon Go back’ in 1928 in India. 

Ans: Provisions of the Rowlatt Act:

• Repression of Political Activities: The Act empowered the government to suppress any political demonstrations or activities.
• Detention Without Trial: It allowed for the detention of political prisoners for up to two years without trial.
• Arrest and Search Without Warrant: The British government could arrest individuals and search properties without needing a warrant.

Impact of the Rowlatt Act:

• The Act sparked widespread outrage among Indians, leading to protests and civil disobedience.
• It intensified the struggle for independence and unified various groups against colonial rule.

Ans: It is true to say that nationalism spreads when people begin to believe that they are all part of the same nation when they discover some unity that binds them together. In India sense of collective belonging came through the experience of united struggles. Cultural processes history, fiction, folklore and songs, popular prints and symbols all played a part in the making of nationalism as mentioned below:
(i) Symbol of a figure or image:
(a) The identity of India was visualised with the image of Bharat Mata.
(b) The image was first created by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay.
(c) Abinindranath Tagore painted his famous image of Bharat Mata.
(ii) Revival of Indian folklore: In the late nineteenth century, the revival of folklore helped in the development of nationalism. Folk songs and legends gave a true picture of traditional culture. It helped in discovering national identity and restoring a sense of pride. Rabindra Nath Tagore collected ballads, nursery rhymes and Myths. Similarly, Natesa Sastri wrote folklore of Southern India.
(iii) Icons and symbols: The design of a tricolour flag during Swadeshi, swaraj flag by Gandhiji in 1921 helped in unifying people and inspire a feeling of nationalism. During demonstrations, the carrying of a Swaraj flag became a symbol of defiance.
(iv) Interpretation of history: The interpretation of history also helped in raising the sense of nationalism among the Indians. Nationalist history drew the attention of the Indians to the great achievements of the past as was done by the extremists like Lok Manya Tilak.

Ans: The Satyagraha Movement of Mahatma Gandhi against the proposed Rowlatt Act, 1919 can be described using the given points: 
(1) Mahatma Gandhi in 1919, decided to launch a nationwide satyagraha against the proposed Rowlatt Act in 1919. 
(2) Gandhi wanted non-violent civil disobedience against such unjust laws, which started with a hartal (strike) on 6th April. 
(3) Rallies were organised in various cities and workers went on strike in railway workshops, and shops were closed down.