Ethical Issues | Biology Class 12 - NEET PDF Download

Ethical Issues

The manipulation of living organisms by the human race cannot go on any further, without regulation. Some ethical standards are required to evaluate the morality of all human activities that might help or harm living organisms. Going beyond the morality of such issues, the biological significance of such things is also important. Genetic modification of organisms can have unpredictable results when such organisms are introduced into the ecosystem. Therefore, the Indian Government has set up organisations such as GEAC (Genetic Engineering Approval Committee), which will make decisions regarding the validity of GM research and the safety of introducing GM-organisms for public services. The modification/usage of living organisms for public services (as food and medicine sources, for example) has also created problems with patents granted for the same.

There is growing public anger that certain companies are being granted patents for products and technologies that make use of the genetic materials, plants and other biological resources that have long been identified, developed and used by farmers and indigenous people of a specific region/country.

Rice is an important food grain, the presence of which goes back thousands of years in Asia’s agricultural history. There are an estimated 200,000 varieties of rice in India alone. The diversity of rice in India is one of the richest in the world. Basmati rice is distinct for its unique aroma and flavour and 27 documented varieties of Basmati are grown in India. There is a reference to Basmati in ancient texts, folklore and poetry, as it has been grown for centuries. In 1997, an American company got patent rights on Basmati rice through the US Patent and Trademark Office. This allowed the company to sell a ‘new’ variety of Basmati, in the US and abroad.

This ‘new’ variety of Basmati had actually been derived from Indian farmer’s varieties. Indian Basmati was crossed with semi-dwarf varieties and claimed as an invention or a novelty. The patent extends to functional equivalents, implying that other people selling Basmati rice could be restricted by the patent. Several attempts have also been made to patent uses, products and processes based on Indian traditional herbal medicines, e.g., turmeric neem. If we are not vigilant and we do not immediately counter these patent applications, other countries/individuals may encash on our rich legacy and we may not be able to do anything about it.

Traditional knowledge related to bio-resources can be exploited to develop modern applications and can also be used to save time, effort and expenditure during their commercialization. There has been growing realisation of the injustice, inadequate compensation and benefit sharing between developed and developing countries. Therefore, some nations are developing laws to prevent such unauthorised exploitation of their bio-resources and traditional knowledge. The Indian Parliament has recently cleared the second amendment of the Indian Patents Bill, that takes such issues into consideration, including patent terms emergency provisions and research and development initiative.

Biopatent 

A patent is a right granted by a government to an inventor to prevent others from commercial use of his invention. A patent is granted for:

(A) An invention [including product]

(B) An improvement in an earlier invention

(C) The process of generating products and

(D) A concept or design.

These products are called biopatents because they are granted for biological entities.

Biopatents are awarded for the following :

(i) strains of microorganisms,

(ii) cell lines,

(iii) genetically modified strains of plants and animals,

(iv) DNA sequences,

(v) the proteins encoded by DNA sequences,

(vi) various biotechnological procedures,

(vii) production processes,

(viii) products, and

(ix) product applications.

For example, one patent covers 'all transgenic plants of Brassica family'. Such broad patents are considered morally unacceptable and fundamentally inequitable.

Biopiracy

Many organisations and multinational companies exploit or patent biological resources or bioresources of other nations without proper authorisation from the countries concerned is known as biopiracy.
The industrialised nations are rich in technology and financial resources but poor in biodiversity and traditional knowledge related to the utilisation of the bioresources. In contrast, developing nations are poor in technology and financial resources, but are rich in biodiversity and traditional knowledge related to bioresources.

Biological resources or bio-resources include all those organisms that can be used to derive commercial benefits. Traditional knowledge related to bio-resources is the knowledge developed by various communities over long periods of history, regarding the utilisation of the bio-resources, e.g., use of herbs, etc, as drugs.

Institutions and companies of industrialised nations are collecting and exploiting the bio-resources, as follows:

(i) The are collecting and patenting the genetic resources themselves. For example, a patent granted in U.S.A. covers the entire 'basmati' rice germplasm indigenous to our country.

(ii) The bio-resources are being analysed for identification of valuable biomolecules. A biomolecule is a compound produced by a living organism. The biomolecules are then patented and used for commercial activities.

(iii) Useful genes are isolated from the bio-resources and patented. These genes are then used to generate commercial products.
A west African plant Pentadiplandra brazzeana produces a protein called Brazzein which is approximately 2000 times more sweeter than sugar. It is proposed to transfer the Brazzein gene into maize and express it in maize Kernels.

But the protein Brazzein was patented in U.S.A. Subsequently, the gene encoding brazzein was isolated and patented in U.S.A.

Old NCERT Syllabus

Bioweapons

Bio-war or biological war is the use of biological weapons against humans or their crops and animals.
Bio-weapons are a device that carries and delivers to the target organism in the form of pathological biological agents or toxins called "bio-weapon agent".

Bio-weapon agent is kept in a suitable container so that it remains active and virulent during delivery. This container could be delivered in various ways, including missiles and aircraft. The use of biological agents in war may date back to 5th century B.C.
Some of the potential pathogen for bio-weapons are those that causes Anthrax, Small pox and Botulinum toxin. These bio weapons sent either through letters (envelopes) as powder or in the form of spray.

The possible defence against bio-weapons include the use of respirator or gas mask, vaccination, administration of appropriate antibiotics, and decontamination. In addition, sensitive detection systems should be developed to control and minimise damage.

Benefits of Biological Weapons over Conventional Weapons 

i) Biological weapons or agents for biological warfare are not costly and can be produced with ease. ii). Detection is almost impossible. iii). Use is likely to increase. iv). They are more dangerous than conventional weapons.

Potential Biological Weapon Agents 

i Anthrax → Bacillus anthracis. ii. Botulinum toxin (Botulin) → Clostridium botulinum. iii. Plague → Yersinia pestis. iv. Viral Encephalitides → Alpha virus.

Ethics includes a set of standards by which a community regulates its behaviour and decides as to which activity is legitimate and which is not. Therefore bioethics may be viewed as a set of standards that may be issued to regulate our activities in relation to the biological world.
Therefore, the Indian Government has set up organisations such as GEAC (Genetic Engineering Approval Committee), which will make decisions regarding the validity of GM research and the safety of introducing GM organisms for public services.

The major bioethical concerns pertaining to biotechnology are summarised below.

(i) Use of animals in biotechnology causes great suffering to them.
(ii) When animals are used for production of pharmaceutical proteins, they are virtually reduced to the status of a 'factory'.
(iii) Introduction of a transgene from one species into another species violates the 'integrity of species'.
(iv) Transfer of human genes into animals (and vice-versa) dilutes the concept of 'humanness'.
(v) Biotechnology is disrespectful to living beings, and only exploits them for the benefit of human beings.
(vi) Biotechnology may pose unforeseen risks to the environment, including risk to biodiversity.

Bioethics in Plant Genetic Engineering The GM crops are fast becoming a part of agriculture throughout the world because of their contribution to the increased crop productivity and to global food, feed and fiber security, besides their use in health-care and industry. However, the constraints associated with public acceptance of transgenic crops continue to be important challenges facing the global community. The following are the major concerns about GM crops and GM food :

• The safety of GM food for human and animal consumption (e.g. GM food may cause allergenicity).

• The effect of GM crops on biodiversity and environment.

• The effect of GM crops on non-target and beneficial insects/microbes.

• Transgenes may escape through pollen to related plant species (gene pollution) and may lead to the development of supper weeds.

• The GM crops may change the fundamental vegetable nature of plants as the genes from animals (e.g. fish or mouse) are being introduced into crop plants.

• The antibiotic resistance marker genes used to produce transgenic crops may horizontally transfer into microbes and thus exacerbate problem of antibiotic resistance in human and animal pathogens (i.e. transgenes may move from plants to gut microflora of humans and animals).

• The GM crops may lead to the change in the evolutionary pattern.