Mesopotamia and its Geography, Urbanism in Mesopotamia, The Development of Writing in Mesopotamia, Literacy in Mesopotamia, and many other things are covered in Writing and City Life Chapter 2 Class 11 History.
Cuneiform: Ancient Mesopotamia's Form of Writing
Let's have a look at NCERT Solutions of Writing and City Life.
Q1: Why do we say that it was not natural fertility and high levels of food production that were the causes of early urbanisation?
Ans: The development of Mesopotamia from a prosperous village to a city proves that natural fertility and high levels of food production were not the only factors responsible for urbanization. There were other factors as well that caused urbanization, two of which have been explained below:
Q2: Which of the following were necessary conditions and which the causes of early urbanization, and which would you say were the outcome of the growth of cities:
(a) highly productive agriculture, (b) water transport, (c) the lack of metal and stone, (d) the division of labor, (e) the use of seals, (f) the military power of kings that made labor compulsory?
Ans:
Following were the necessary conditions for early urbanization:
The causes of early urbanization were:
The outcomes of the growth of cities were:
Mesopotamia Seals
Q3: Why were mobile animal herders not necessarily a threat to town life?
Ans:
The reasons:
The man tending a herd of animals.
Q4: Why would the early temple have been much like a house?
Ans. The people of Mesopotamia considered the almighty God the owner and protector of the cities, agricultural lands, fisheries, and herds. The gods had the power to both protect and destroy the resources of the people. Such beliefs infused the feelings of respect and fear in the people for their protector. Thus, the people made every effort to keep their gods satisfied and happy. This is how they used to seek blessings from the all-powerful. Building temples just like houses was also a way of providing all the necessary comfort to God and his family.
Q5: Of the new institutions that came into being once city life had begun, which would have depended on the initiative of the king?
Ans. Once city life began, several new institutions came into being. Some of the most prominent institutions can be grouped as:
1. Social institutions - Nuclear families and marriage
2. Political institutions - Administrative machinery, army, and messaging system
3. Economic institutions - Trade and tax
4. Cultural institutions - Temples, schools, and tablet writing
Out of the above-mentioned institutions, the ones that depended on the initiative of the king have been discussed below.
Economic Institutions
Trade: Trade was the means by which raw materials and finished products that were not available but were needed could be attained. Mesopotamia did not possess all resources and was in a need to establish trade links with Assyria, Babylonia, and Sumeria. To conduct trade, proper roadways and waterways had to be built and maintained. This was indeed not possible without the initiative and aid of the King. The king also appointed officers who could inspect the incoming goods and levy a charge on those goods.
Taxation: Taxation served as a potent source of revenue for Mesopotamia. This important sector was planned and executed by the central authority or the King to ensure its effective organization. To ensure a perennial source of revenue, the tax was imposed on almost every commodity and service such as fishing, farming, and trading.
Cultural Institutions
Temples
Several Mesopotamian towns had evolved and developed around temples. People of these temple towns associated themselves with the temples. Every ruler wanted to gain control of the temples by taking the opportunity of this association.
A temple of a later period, c.3000 BCE, with an open courtyard and in-and-out façade (as excavated).
Immense wealth and energy were spent on the beautification of the holy structures. Such works conducted by the King made him popular among the masses and helped him earn a high status and the authority to command the community too.
Political Institutions
For the proper management of the city, the King had to take several initiatives. To achieve so, he maintained an army for the protection of the city and its people. Maintenance of law and order in the city was the army's primary function. A proper network of messaging was introduced by the King that facilitated uninterrupted relations with other cities and settlements.
Q6: What do ancient stories tell us about the civilization of Mesopotamia?
Ans: Literature is one of the most important sources to study the past. It helps us to peep into the past and get a glimpse of the ideas, cultures, and practices of the bygone era. The two most important pieces of literature or stories that throw some light on the Mesopotamian civilization have been discussed below.
Epic of Gilgamesh
There is a reference to the goddess of creation Aruru, and the god of heaven Anu. The religious beliefs of Mesopotamians also designed their notion of the afterlife. After death, one could move to either hell or heaven. Heaven guaranteed all pleasures, while hell was a sanctum of darkness.
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1. How did the concept of city life emerge in history? |
2. What were some of the key characteristics of city life in ancient times? |
3. How did the Industrial Revolution impact city life? |
4. What role did writing play in shaping city life throughout history? |
5. How has city life evolved over time, and what are some of the major challenges faced by cities today? |
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