Class 7 Social Science Chapter 4 NCERT Book - New Beginnings: Cities and States

 Page 1


New Beginnings:  
Cities and States
CHAPTER
4
 
The kingdom shall be protected by fortifying the capital and the towns 
at the frontiers. The land should not only be capable of sustaining the 
population but also outsiders in times of calamities. ... It should be 
beautiful, being endowed with cultivable land, mines, timber forests, 
elephant forests, and good pastures rich in cattle. It should not depend 
[only on] rain for water. It should have good roads and waterways. It 
should have a productive economy, with a wide variety of commodities ….
– Kau?ilya, Arthashastra
1. What is meant by ‘Second 
Urbanisation of India’?
2. Why were the janapadas and 
mahajanapadas an important 
development in India’s early 
history?
3. What kind of system of 
governance did they evolve?
The Big 
Questions
Fig. 4.1. Ruins of a major structure at Rajag?iha (modern-day Rajgir 
in Bihar), when it was the capital of the Magadha mahajanapada.
Chapter 4.indd   67 Chapter 4.indd   67 08-04-2025   10:13:44 08-04-2025   10:13:44
Page 2


New Beginnings:  
Cities and States
CHAPTER
4
 
The kingdom shall be protected by fortifying the capital and the towns 
at the frontiers. The land should not only be capable of sustaining the 
population but also outsiders in times of calamities. ... It should be 
beautiful, being endowed with cultivable land, mines, timber forests, 
elephant forests, and good pastures rich in cattle. It should not depend 
[only on] rain for water. It should have good roads and waterways. It 
should have a productive economy, with a wide variety of commodities ….
– Kau?ilya, Arthashastra
1. What is meant by ‘Second 
Urbanisation of India’?
2. Why were the janapadas and 
mahajanapadas an important 
development in India’s early 
history?
3. What kind of system of 
governance did they evolve?
The Big 
Questions
Fig. 4.1. Ruins of a major structure at Rajag?iha (modern-day Rajgir 
in Bihar), when it was the capital of the Magadha mahajanapada.
Chapter 4.indd   67 Chapter 4.indd   67 08-04-2025   10:13:44 08-04-2025   10:13:44
68
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1
Let us recall that in the early 2nd millennium BCE (that is, 
over a few centuries after 2000 BCE), the Indus / Harappan /  
Sindhu-Sarasvati civilisation, which we called India’s 
‘First Urbanisation’, disintegrated. Some of its cities were 
abandoned; in others, some people continued living 
there, but reverting to a rural or village lifestyle. They 
had to, since all the components of the Harappan urban 
order had disappeared: elaborate structures, both private 
and public; crowded streets and busy markets; different 
communities with specialised occupations (metalsmiths, 
potters, builders, weavers, craftspeople, and so on); a 
writing system; a sanitation system; the presence of an 
administration; and, behind it all, a larger state structure 
with a ruling class at the head.  And for a whole millennium, 
urban life remained absent from India, though there may 
have been a few towns here and there in north India. 
Fig. 4.2. The fertile Gangetic plains helped the mahajanapadas to grow and prosper.
Chapter 4.indd   68 Chapter 4.indd   68 08-04-2025   10:13:44 08-04-2025   10:13:44
Page 3


New Beginnings:  
Cities and States
CHAPTER
4
 
The kingdom shall be protected by fortifying the capital and the towns 
at the frontiers. The land should not only be capable of sustaining the 
population but also outsiders in times of calamities. ... It should be 
beautiful, being endowed with cultivable land, mines, timber forests, 
elephant forests, and good pastures rich in cattle. It should not depend 
[only on] rain for water. It should have good roads and waterways. It 
should have a productive economy, with a wide variety of commodities ….
– Kau?ilya, Arthashastra
1. What is meant by ‘Second 
Urbanisation of India’?
2. Why were the janapadas and 
mahajanapadas an important 
development in India’s early 
history?
3. What kind of system of 
governance did they evolve?
The Big 
Questions
Fig. 4.1. Ruins of a major structure at Rajag?iha (modern-day Rajgir 
in Bihar), when it was the capital of the Magadha mahajanapada.
Chapter 4.indd   67 Chapter 4.indd   67 08-04-2025   10:13:44 08-04-2025   10:13:44
68
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1
Let us recall that in the early 2nd millennium BCE (that is, 
over a few centuries after 2000 BCE), the Indus / Harappan /  
Sindhu-Sarasvati civilisation, which we called India’s 
‘First Urbanisation’, disintegrated. Some of its cities were 
abandoned; in others, some people continued living 
there, but reverting to a rural or village lifestyle. They 
had to, since all the components of the Harappan urban 
order had disappeared: elaborate structures, both private 
and public; crowded streets and busy markets; different 
communities with specialised occupations (metalsmiths, 
potters, builders, weavers, craftspeople, and so on); a 
writing system; a sanitation system; the presence of an 
administration; and, behind it all, a larger state structure 
with a ruling class at the head.  And for a whole millennium, 
urban life remained absent from India, though there may 
have been a few towns here and there in north India. 
Fig. 4.2. The fertile Gangetic plains helped the mahajanapadas to grow and prosper.
Chapter 4.indd   68 Chapter 4.indd   68 08-04-2025   10:13:44 08-04-2025   10:13:44
69
Tapestry of the Past  
4 – New Beginnings: Cities and States
Indeed, there were important regional cultures, which we 
need not study here.
Then, in the 1st millennium BCE, a vibrant new phase of 
urbanisation began in the Ganga plains, parts of the Indus 
(or Sindhu) basin and neighbouring regions, gradually 
spreading to other parts of the Subcontinent. How do we 
know this? Mainly from two sources: (1) archaeological 
excavations that have confirmed the existence of those 
ancient urban centres, and (2) ancient literature describing 
them — late Vedic, Buddhist and Jain literatures are full of 
references to these new urban centres. 
This new phase is often called India’s ‘Second 
Urbanisation’ — which, incidentally, has continued right 
up to today! Let us see how this phase emerged.
Janapadas and Mahajanapadas
Towards the end of the 2nd millennium BCE, regional 
cultures gradually reorganised themselves in north India. 
As people formed clans or groups, probably sharing a 
common language and common customs, each clan came 
to be associated with a territory or janapada led by a 
raja or ruler. (‘Janapada’ is a Sanskrit word which means 
‘where the people (jana) have set foot (pada),’ that is, have 
settled down.) 
The janapadas grew as trade networks expanded and 
connected them. By the 8th or 7th centuries BCE, some 
of those early states had merged together; the resulting 
bigger units were known as mahajanapadas. Although 
the texts have different lists of them, the more frequent 
list gives the names of 16 mahajanapadas, extending from 
Gandhara in the northwest to Anga in the east and to 
Ashmaka in central India, close to the Godavari River (see 
map). There may have been a few more, along with some 
smaller janapadas continuing independently.
Chapter 4.indd   69 Chapter 4.indd   69 08-04-2025   10:13:45 08-04-2025   10:13:45
Page 4


New Beginnings:  
Cities and States
CHAPTER
4
 
The kingdom shall be protected by fortifying the capital and the towns 
at the frontiers. The land should not only be capable of sustaining the 
population but also outsiders in times of calamities. ... It should be 
beautiful, being endowed with cultivable land, mines, timber forests, 
elephant forests, and good pastures rich in cattle. It should not depend 
[only on] rain for water. It should have good roads and waterways. It 
should have a productive economy, with a wide variety of commodities ….
– Kau?ilya, Arthashastra
1. What is meant by ‘Second 
Urbanisation of India’?
2. Why were the janapadas and 
mahajanapadas an important 
development in India’s early 
history?
3. What kind of system of 
governance did they evolve?
The Big 
Questions
Fig. 4.1. Ruins of a major structure at Rajag?iha (modern-day Rajgir 
in Bihar), when it was the capital of the Magadha mahajanapada.
Chapter 4.indd   67 Chapter 4.indd   67 08-04-2025   10:13:44 08-04-2025   10:13:44
68
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1
Let us recall that in the early 2nd millennium BCE (that is, 
over a few centuries after 2000 BCE), the Indus / Harappan /  
Sindhu-Sarasvati civilisation, which we called India’s 
‘First Urbanisation’, disintegrated. Some of its cities were 
abandoned; in others, some people continued living 
there, but reverting to a rural or village lifestyle. They 
had to, since all the components of the Harappan urban 
order had disappeared: elaborate structures, both private 
and public; crowded streets and busy markets; different 
communities with specialised occupations (metalsmiths, 
potters, builders, weavers, craftspeople, and so on); a 
writing system; a sanitation system; the presence of an 
administration; and, behind it all, a larger state structure 
with a ruling class at the head.  And for a whole millennium, 
urban life remained absent from India, though there may 
have been a few towns here and there in north India. 
Fig. 4.2. The fertile Gangetic plains helped the mahajanapadas to grow and prosper.
Chapter 4.indd   68 Chapter 4.indd   68 08-04-2025   10:13:44 08-04-2025   10:13:44
69
Tapestry of the Past  
4 – New Beginnings: Cities and States
Indeed, there were important regional cultures, which we 
need not study here.
Then, in the 1st millennium BCE, a vibrant new phase of 
urbanisation began in the Ganga plains, parts of the Indus 
(or Sindhu) basin and neighbouring regions, gradually 
spreading to other parts of the Subcontinent. How do we 
know this? Mainly from two sources: (1) archaeological 
excavations that have confirmed the existence of those 
ancient urban centres, and (2) ancient literature describing 
them — late Vedic, Buddhist and Jain literatures are full of 
references to these new urban centres. 
This new phase is often called India’s ‘Second 
Urbanisation’ — which, incidentally, has continued right 
up to today! Let us see how this phase emerged.
Janapadas and Mahajanapadas
Towards the end of the 2nd millennium BCE, regional 
cultures gradually reorganised themselves in north India. 
As people formed clans or groups, probably sharing a 
common language and common customs, each clan came 
to be associated with a territory or janapada led by a 
raja or ruler. (‘Janapada’ is a Sanskrit word which means 
‘where the people (jana) have set foot (pada),’ that is, have 
settled down.) 
The janapadas grew as trade networks expanded and 
connected them. By the 8th or 7th centuries BCE, some 
of those early states had merged together; the resulting 
bigger units were known as mahajanapadas. Although 
the texts have different lists of them, the more frequent 
list gives the names of 16 mahajanapadas, extending from 
Gandhara in the northwest to Anga in the east and to 
Ashmaka in central India, close to the Godavari River (see 
map). There may have been a few more, along with some 
smaller janapadas continuing independently.
Chapter 4.indd   69 Chapter 4.indd   69 08-04-2025   10:13:45 08-04-2025   10:13:45
70
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1
THINK ABOUT IT
Notice how many of the mahajanapadas are concentrated in 
the Ganga plains. There are several possible reasons for this, 
including the growth of agriculture in the fertile Ganga plains, 
the availability of iron ore in the mountains and hills (see 
below about iron), and the formation of new trade networks.
LET’S EXPLORE
 Æ The most powerful of these new states were Magadha, 
Kosala, Vatsa and Avanti. Looking at the map, can you 
identify their capitals? Also, how many can you match 
with Indian cities of today?
 Æ Compare this map with the map of the regions mentioned 
in the Mahabharata (see Fig. 5.4 in the chapter ‘India, That 
Is Bharat’ in Grade 6) and list the names common to both 
maps. What do you think this implies?
The map (Fig. 4.3) shows the mahajanapadas’ capitals. Most 
were fairly large well-fortified cities, with a moat running 
outside the fortifications as further defence. Often, the 
gateways through the rampart walls would be deliberately 
kept narrow, so guards may control the movement of people 
and goods entering or leaving the city. It is fascinating to 
note that most of those ancient capitals continue to be living 
cities today — ‘modern’ cities that are often 2,500 years old!
Early Democratic Traditions
Each janapada had an assembly or council, called sabha 
or samiti, where matters concerning the clan would be 
discussed. (Remember, from the chapter on ‘India’s Cultural 
Roots’, that the words sabha and samiti first appear in the 
Vedas, India’s most ancient texts.) We may assume that 
most of the members were elders in the clan. The raja 
was not expected to rule independently or arbitrarily; 
Moat:  
A deep, 
wide ditch 
surrounding 
a fort or a 
fortified city 
and filled with 
water. 
Chapter 4.indd   70 Chapter 4.indd   70 08-04-2025   10:13:45 08-04-2025   10:13:45
Page 5


New Beginnings:  
Cities and States
CHAPTER
4
 
The kingdom shall be protected by fortifying the capital and the towns 
at the frontiers. The land should not only be capable of sustaining the 
population but also outsiders in times of calamities. ... It should be 
beautiful, being endowed with cultivable land, mines, timber forests, 
elephant forests, and good pastures rich in cattle. It should not depend 
[only on] rain for water. It should have good roads and waterways. It 
should have a productive economy, with a wide variety of commodities ….
– Kau?ilya, Arthashastra
1. What is meant by ‘Second 
Urbanisation of India’?
2. Why were the janapadas and 
mahajanapadas an important 
development in India’s early 
history?
3. What kind of system of 
governance did they evolve?
The Big 
Questions
Fig. 4.1. Ruins of a major structure at Rajag?iha (modern-day Rajgir 
in Bihar), when it was the capital of the Magadha mahajanapada.
Chapter 4.indd   67 Chapter 4.indd   67 08-04-2025   10:13:44 08-04-2025   10:13:44
68
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1
Let us recall that in the early 2nd millennium BCE (that is, 
over a few centuries after 2000 BCE), the Indus / Harappan /  
Sindhu-Sarasvati civilisation, which we called India’s 
‘First Urbanisation’, disintegrated. Some of its cities were 
abandoned; in others, some people continued living 
there, but reverting to a rural or village lifestyle. They 
had to, since all the components of the Harappan urban 
order had disappeared: elaborate structures, both private 
and public; crowded streets and busy markets; different 
communities with specialised occupations (metalsmiths, 
potters, builders, weavers, craftspeople, and so on); a 
writing system; a sanitation system; the presence of an 
administration; and, behind it all, a larger state structure 
with a ruling class at the head.  And for a whole millennium, 
urban life remained absent from India, though there may 
have been a few towns here and there in north India. 
Fig. 4.2. The fertile Gangetic plains helped the mahajanapadas to grow and prosper.
Chapter 4.indd   68 Chapter 4.indd   68 08-04-2025   10:13:44 08-04-2025   10:13:44
69
Tapestry of the Past  
4 – New Beginnings: Cities and States
Indeed, there were important regional cultures, which we 
need not study here.
Then, in the 1st millennium BCE, a vibrant new phase of 
urbanisation began in the Ganga plains, parts of the Indus 
(or Sindhu) basin and neighbouring regions, gradually 
spreading to other parts of the Subcontinent. How do we 
know this? Mainly from two sources: (1) archaeological 
excavations that have confirmed the existence of those 
ancient urban centres, and (2) ancient literature describing 
them — late Vedic, Buddhist and Jain literatures are full of 
references to these new urban centres. 
This new phase is often called India’s ‘Second 
Urbanisation’ — which, incidentally, has continued right 
up to today! Let us see how this phase emerged.
Janapadas and Mahajanapadas
Towards the end of the 2nd millennium BCE, regional 
cultures gradually reorganised themselves in north India. 
As people formed clans or groups, probably sharing a 
common language and common customs, each clan came 
to be associated with a territory or janapada led by a 
raja or ruler. (‘Janapada’ is a Sanskrit word which means 
‘where the people (jana) have set foot (pada),’ that is, have 
settled down.) 
The janapadas grew as trade networks expanded and 
connected them. By the 8th or 7th centuries BCE, some 
of those early states had merged together; the resulting 
bigger units were known as mahajanapadas. Although 
the texts have different lists of them, the more frequent 
list gives the names of 16 mahajanapadas, extending from 
Gandhara in the northwest to Anga in the east and to 
Ashmaka in central India, close to the Godavari River (see 
map). There may have been a few more, along with some 
smaller janapadas continuing independently.
Chapter 4.indd   69 Chapter 4.indd   69 08-04-2025   10:13:45 08-04-2025   10:13:45
70
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1
THINK ABOUT IT
Notice how many of the mahajanapadas are concentrated in 
the Ganga plains. There are several possible reasons for this, 
including the growth of agriculture in the fertile Ganga plains, 
the availability of iron ore in the mountains and hills (see 
below about iron), and the formation of new trade networks.
LET’S EXPLORE
 Æ The most powerful of these new states were Magadha, 
Kosala, Vatsa and Avanti. Looking at the map, can you 
identify their capitals? Also, how many can you match 
with Indian cities of today?
 Æ Compare this map with the map of the regions mentioned 
in the Mahabharata (see Fig. 5.4 in the chapter ‘India, That 
Is Bharat’ in Grade 6) and list the names common to both 
maps. What do you think this implies?
The map (Fig. 4.3) shows the mahajanapadas’ capitals. Most 
were fairly large well-fortified cities, with a moat running 
outside the fortifications as further defence. Often, the 
gateways through the rampart walls would be deliberately 
kept narrow, so guards may control the movement of people 
and goods entering or leaving the city. It is fascinating to 
note that most of those ancient capitals continue to be living 
cities today — ‘modern’ cities that are often 2,500 years old!
Early Democratic Traditions
Each janapada had an assembly or council, called sabha 
or samiti, where matters concerning the clan would be 
discussed. (Remember, from the chapter on ‘India’s Cultural 
Roots’, that the words sabha and samiti first appear in the 
Vedas, India’s most ancient texts.) We may assume that 
most of the members were elders in the clan. The raja 
was not expected to rule independently or arbitrarily; 
Moat:  
A deep, 
wide ditch 
surrounding 
a fort or a 
fortified city 
and filled with 
water. 
Chapter 4.indd   70 Chapter 4.indd   70 08-04-2025   10:13:45 08-04-2025   10:13:45
71
Tapestry of the Past  
4 – New Beginnings: Cities and States
a good ruler was supposed to take the advice from those 
assemblies, apart from the ministers and administrators. 
Indeed, according to some texts, an incompetent ruler 
could be removed by the assembly. Of course, while such 
mentions are significant, it does not mean that this was an 
established law; let us remember that the data we have for 
such remote periods is incomplete.  
In their political systems, the mahajanapadas expanded 
the basic principles of the janapadas. Some were, in effect, 
monarchies, in the sense that the raja was the ultimate 
authority, supported by ministers and an assembly of 
Fig. 4.3. Map of the sixteen mahajanapadas. Note that their borders are approximate.
ANGA ANGA
Champa Champa
MAGADHA MAGADHA
Rajag?iha Rajag?iha
KOSALA KOSALA
Shravasti Shravasti
V?IJJI V?IJJI
Vaishali Vaishali
MALLA MALLA
Kushinara Kushinara
CHEDI CHEDI
VATSA VATSA
Kaushambi Kaushambi
ASHMAKA ASHMAKA
AVANTI AVANTI
Ujjayini Ujjayini
KAMBOJA KAMBOJA
KURU KURU
GANDHARA GANDHARA 
Tak?hashila Tak?hashila
Pushkalavati Pushkalavati
MATSYA MATSYA
Vira?a Vira?a
SHURASENA SHURASENA
Mathura Mathura
PAÑCHALA PAÑCHALA
Ahichchhatra Ahichchhatra Indraprastha Indraprastha
Tripuri Tripuri
Chapter 4.indd   71 Chapter 4.indd   71 08-04-2025   10:13:46 08-04-2025   10:13:46