Spectrum Summary: Debates on the Future Strategy after the Civil Disobedience Movement | History for UPSC CSE PDF Download

• After the Civil Disobedience Movement was withdrawn, there was a two-stage debate on the future nationalist strategy.

• The first stage (1934–35) focused on the course of action during the non-mass struggle phase.

• The second stage, in 1937, addressed the issue of office acceptance in relation to the provincial elections under the Government of India Act, 1935. 

The First Stage Debate

• After the end of the Civil Disobedience Movement, three main perspectives were proposed for the next course of action for nationalists.

• The first perspective suggested focusing on constructive work based on Gandhian principles.

• The second perspective, supported by leaders like M.A. Ansari, Asaf Ali, Bhulabhai Desai, S. Satyamurthy, and B.C. Roy, argued for:
  1.  Participating in the constitutional struggle and elections to the Central Legislature (due in 1934) to maintain political interest and morale.
  2.  They believed such participation did not signify support for constitutional politics but would help strengthen Congress and prepare the masses for future struggles.
  3.  A strong presence in the councils would give Congress prestige and serve as an alternative to the suspended movement.

• The third perspective, championed by Nehru and the leftist wing, criticized both constructive work and council entry:
  1.  They argued these actions would divert attention from mass political action and the central issue of fighting colonialism.
  2.  They favored continuing non-constitutional mass struggles, believing the revolutionary situation still existed due to the ongoing economic crisis and the readiness of the masses to fight.

• The leftist trend emphasized the importance of resuming the mass struggle over constitutional methods, as they felt it was crucial for addressing colonialism.

Nehru’s Vision

• Nehru stated that the main goal for the Indian people, as for the world, was the abolition of capitalism and the establishment of socialism.
• He viewed the withdrawal of the Civil Disobedience Movement and council entry as a "spiritual defeat," "surrender of ideals," and a shift from revolutionary to reformist thinking.
• Nehru suggested revising vested interests to favor the masses by addressing the economic and class demands of peasants, workers, landlords, and capitalists.
• He advocated for organizing the masses into class-based organizations, such as kisan sabhas (peasant associations) and trade unions.
• Nehru believed these class organizations should affiliate with the Congress to influence its policies and activities, arguing that only then could there be a genuine anti-imperialist struggle.

Nehru’s Opposition to Struggle-Truce-Struggle Strategy

• Gandhi and many Congress leaders supported the struggle-truce-struggle (S-T-S) strategy, where a mass movement would be followed by a period of truce to recuperate and allow the government time to address nationalist demands.
• The truce phase was seen as essential for the masses to regain strength and for the government to respond to the nationalists' demands.
• If the government failed to respond, the movement could resume with mass participation.
• Nehru opposed the S-T-S strategy, arguing that after the Lahore Congress's call for purna swaraj, the movement should have continuous confrontation with imperialism.
• Nehru proposed a Struggle-Victory (S-V) strategy, advocating for direct action without any constitutional phase, believing real power could only be won through sustained struggle.

Finally, Yes to Council Entry

• Both nationalists and British officials expected a split in Congress, similar to the Surat split, but Gandhi addressed the issue by allowing those in favor of council entry to join the legislatures.
• Gandhi clarified that while parliamentary politics would not lead to freedom, Congress members who couldn't engage in satyagraha or constructive work could express their patriotism through council work, as long as they didn’t get caught up in constitutionalism or self-interest.
• He reassured leftists that the withdrawal of the Civil Disobedience Movement wasn't a surrender to opportunists or a compromise with imperialism.
• In May 1934, the All India Congress Committee (AICC) met at Patna and formed a Parliamentary Board to contest elections under Congress’s banner.
• Gandhi realized he was out of sync with powerful factions in Congress, including intellectuals who supported parliamentary politics, which he disagreed with, and those distanced by his focus on the spinning wheel.
• The socialists, led by Nehru, believed the British had to be expelled before pursuing socialism, and felt it was better to radicalize Congress gradually than become isolated from the masses.
• The right wing also showed flexibility, and in the November 1934 elections to the Central Legislative Assembly, Congress won 45 out of 75 seats reserved for Indians.

Government of India Act, 1935

Main Features

The Government of India Act was passed by the British Parliament in August 1935. Its main provisions were as follows:

1. An  All India Federation

• The All India Federation was a proposed federation of Indian states that never came to fruition. 
• The federation was conditional on the fulfillment of two conditions: that states with the allotment of 52 seats in the proposed Council of States should agree to join the federation, and that the aggregate population of these states should be 50 percent of the total population of all Indian states. 
• Since these conditions were not met, the central government continued to operate under the provisions of the Government of India Act, of 1919. 

• The Constitution of India divided the subjects to be administered into reserved and transferred subjects, with the Governor-General in charge of the entire system. 
• He was responsible for the security and tranquillity of India and could act in his individual judgment to discharge his responsibilities. 

• The 1935 Indian Constitution created a bicameral legislature with an upper house (Council of States) and a lower house (Federal Assembly). 
• The Council of States was to be a 260-member house, partly directly elected from British Indian provinces and partly (40 per cent) nominated by the princes. The Federal Assembly was to be a 375-member house, partly indirectly elected from British Indian provinces and partly (one-third) nominated by the princes.
• The Council of States was to be a permanent body with one-third of members retiring every third year, while the Federal Assembly was to have a five-year duration. 
• Three lists for legislation purposes were to be federal, provincial, and concurrent. 
• Members of the Federal Assembly could move a vote of no-confidence against ministers, but members of the Council of States could not. 
• The system of religion-based and class-based electorates was further extended, and 80 percent of the budget was non-votable. 
• The Governor-General was given residuary powers. 

• The Government of India Act of 1935 replaced dyarchy with provincial autonomy and gave provinces a separate legal identity. 
• Provinces were freed from the supervision of the secretary of state and governor-general, and they received independent financial powers and resources. 

• The Governor was to be the Crown's nominee and representative to exercise authority on the king’s behalf in a province. 
• The Governor was to have special powers regarding minorities, rights of civil servants, law and order, British business interests, partially excluded areas, princely states, etc. 
• The Governor could take over and indefinitely run the administration. 

• The Communal Award led to the establishment of separate electorates based on communal representation. 
• All members were to be directly elected and the franchise was extended to include women.
• Ministers were to administer all provincial subjects in a council of ministers headed by a premier.
• Ministers were made answerable to and removable by the adverse vote of the legislature.
• The provincial legislature could legislate on subjects in the provincial and concurrent lists.
• 40 percent of the budget was still not votable. -The governor could refuse assent to a bill, promulgate ordinances, and enact governor’s Acts. 

• The Government of India Act 1935 was an attempt to further the process of Indian self-government begun by the Government of India Act 1919.  
• The Act increased the autonomy of the Indian provinces, while still retaining the authority of the governor-general. 
• The Act enfranchised 14 percent of the British Indian population.  
• The Act provided a rigid constitution with no possibility of internal growth. 
• The right of the amendment was reserved with the British Parliament. 

• Repression was used to quell the Civil Disobedience Movement, and reforms were used to revive the political standing of constitutionalist liberals and moderates. 
• The strategy was to create dissensions within the Congress party in order to placate the right wing with constitutional concessions and crush the left wing with police measures.
• Provincial autonomy would create powerful provincial leaders who would gradually become autonomous centers of political power. 

• The 1935 Act was widely condemned and unanimously rejected by Congress.
• The Hindu Mahasabha believed that the 1935 Act was framed to maintain British influence in India.
• Lord Linlithgow (Viceroy 1936-43) stated the Act was designed to maintain British control.
• Jawaharlal Nehru compared the 1935 Act to a car with all brakes and no engine, implying it lacked power.
• B.R. Tomlinson observed that the constitutional advance in India was intended to attract Indian collaborators to the British Raj.
• The National Liberal Foundation supported the functioning of the 1935 Act at both central and provincial levels.
• The Congress, on the other hand, demanded the convening of a Constituent Assembly with adult franchise to frame a constitution for an independent India.

The Second Stage Debate

• In early 1937, elections to provincial assemblies were announced, sparking a debate among nationalists about the future strategy.
• The Congress was united in opposing the 1935 Act entirely, but there was uncertainty about how to do so in the absence of a mass movement.
• It was agreed that the Congress should contest the elections with a detailed political and economic programme to strengthen anti-imperialist sentiment among the people.
• However, there was no clear plan for what to do after the elections.
• A major issue was whether the Congress should form a government if it won a majority in a province.
• Sharp differences emerged among nationalists over these questions, with the debate reflecting the growing ideological divide between the left and the right.

Divided Opinion

• The left-wing of the Indian National Congress, led by Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhash Bose, and the Congress socialists and communists, were opposed to accepting offices under the 1935 Government of India Act. 
• They argued that this would negate the nationalists' rejection of the Act. 
• As a counter-strategy, the leftists proposed entering the councils with the aim of creating deadlocks, thus making the working of the Act impossible. 
• The proponents of office acceptance argued that they were equally committed to combating the 1935 Act, but that working in legislatures was to be only a short-term tactic. 

• Gandhi initially opposed office acceptance in Congress Working Committee (CWC) meetings, but by early 1936, he was open to trying the formation of Congress ministries.
• The Congress, in its sessions at Lucknow (early 1936) and Faizpur (late 1937), decided to fight the elections but postponed the decision on office acceptance to the post-election phase.
• The Congress resolution stated the aim was to "combat" the 1935 Act both inside and outside the legislatures, without submitting or cooperating with it.
• Elections to the provincial assemblies were held in February 1937 in 11 provinces: Madras, Central Provinces, Bihar, Orissa, United Provinces, Bombay Presidency, Assam, NWFP, Bengal, Punjab, and Sindh.
• These elections marked the first time a larger number of Indians were eligible to vote, with an estimated 30.1 million enfranchised, including 4.25 million women (14% of the total population).
• Out of the enfranchised, 15.5 million, including 917,000 women, exercised their right to vote.

Congress Manifesto for Elections

• The Congress manifesto reaffirmed its total rejection of the 1935 Act.
• It promised the release of prisoners and the removal of gender and caste-based disabilities.
• The manifesto called for a radical transformation of the agrarian system, including a substantial reduction in rent and revenue, and scaling down of rural debts.
• It also emphasized the need for cheap credit, the right to form trade unions, and the right to strike.
• Gandhi did not attend any election meetings during this period.

Congress' Performance

• The Congress won 716 out of 1,161 seats it contested in the 1937 provincial elections.
• There were a total of 1,585 seats in the legislative assemblies of the 11 provinces.
• Congress secured a majority in all provinces, except Bengal, Assam, Punjab, Sindh, and NWFP, and became the largest party in Bengal, Assam, and NWFP.
• Due to this success, Congress's prestige rose, and Nehru was reconciled to the dominant strategy of S-T-S (Struggle, Truce, and Settlement).