Page 1
61
DEVOTIONAL PATHS
TO THE DIVINE
Y
ou may have seen people perform rituals of
worship, or singing , or ,
or even repeating the name of God in silence, and
noticed that some of them are moved to tears. Such
intense devotion or love of God is the legacy of various
since the eighth century.
The Idea of a Supreme God
Before large kingdoms emerged, different groups
of people worshipped their own gods and goddesses.
As people were brought together through the growth
of towns, trade and empires, new ideas began to
develop. The idea that all living things pass through
countless cycles of birth and rebirth performing good
deeds and bad came to be widely accepted. Similarly,
the idea that all human beings are not equal even at
birth gained ground during this period. The belief that
social privileges came from birth in a “noble” family or
a “high” caste was the subject of many learned texts.
Many people were uneasy with such ideas and
turned to the teachings of the Buddha or the Jainas
according to which it was possible to overcome social
differences and break the cycle of rebirth through
personal effort. Others felt attracted to the idea of a
Supreme God who could deliver humans from such
bondage if approached with devotion (or bhakti).
This idea, advocated in the grew in
popularity in the early centuries of the Common Era.
DEVOTIONAL PATHS
TO THE DIVINE
The beginning of
Bhakti
Worship of certain
deities, which
became a central
feature of later
Hinduism, gained in
importance. These
deities included
Shiva, Vishnu, and
goddesses such as
Durga. These deities
were worshipped
through Bhakti, an
idea that became
very popular at
this time. Bhakti is
generally understood
as a person’s
devotion to his or
her chosen deity.
Anybody, whether
rich or poor, belonging
to the so-called ‘high’
or ‘low’ castes, man
or woman, could
follow the path of
Bhakti. The idea of
Bhakti is present in
the Bhagavad Gita, a
sacred book of
the Hindus.
Page 2
61
DEVOTIONAL PATHS
TO THE DIVINE
Y
ou may have seen people perform rituals of
worship, or singing , or ,
or even repeating the name of God in silence, and
noticed that some of them are moved to tears. Such
intense devotion or love of God is the legacy of various
since the eighth century.
The Idea of a Supreme God
Before large kingdoms emerged, different groups
of people worshipped their own gods and goddesses.
As people were brought together through the growth
of towns, trade and empires, new ideas began to
develop. The idea that all living things pass through
countless cycles of birth and rebirth performing good
deeds and bad came to be widely accepted. Similarly,
the idea that all human beings are not equal even at
birth gained ground during this period. The belief that
social privileges came from birth in a “noble” family or
a “high” caste was the subject of many learned texts.
Many people were uneasy with such ideas and
turned to the teachings of the Buddha or the Jainas
according to which it was possible to overcome social
differences and break the cycle of rebirth through
personal effort. Others felt attracted to the idea of a
Supreme God who could deliver humans from such
bondage if approached with devotion (or bhakti).
This idea, advocated in the grew in
popularity in the early centuries of the Common Era.
DEVOTIONAL PATHS
TO THE DIVINE
The beginning of
Bhakti
Worship of certain
deities, which
became a central
feature of later
Hinduism, gained in
importance. These
deities included
Shiva, Vishnu, and
goddesses such as
Durga. These deities
were worshipped
through Bhakti, an
idea that became
very popular at
this time. Bhakti is
generally understood
as a person’s
devotion to his or
her chosen deity.
Anybody, whether
rich or poor, belonging
to the so-called ‘high’
or ‘low’ castes, man
or woman, could
follow the path of
Bhakti. The idea of
Bhakti is present in
the Bhagavad Gita, a
sacred book of
the Hindus.
62
Shiva, Vishnu and
Durga as supreme
deities came to
be worshipped
through elaborate
rituals. At the
same time, gods
and goddesses
worshipped in
different areas
c a m e t o b e
identified with
Shiva, Vishnu
or Durga. In the
process, local myths and legends became a part of the
Puranic stories, and methods of worship recommended
in the Puranas were introduced into the local cults.
Eventually the Puranas also laid down that it was
possible for devotees to receive the grace of God
regardless of their caste status. The idea of bhakti
became so popular that even Buddhists and Jainas
adopted these beliefs.
Bhakti in South India –
Nayanars and Alvars
The seventh to ninth centuries saw the emergence of
new religious movements, led by the Nayanars (saints
devoted to Shiva) and Alvars (saints devoted to Vishnu)
who came from all castes including those considered
“untouchable” like the Pulaiyar and the Panars. They
were sharply critical of the Buddhists and Jainas
and preached ardent love of Shiva or Vishnu as the
path to salvation. They drew upon the ideals of love
and heroism as found in the Sangam literature (the
earliest example of Tamil literature, composed during
the early centuries of the Common Era) and blended
them with the values of bhakti. The Nayanars and
Alvars went from place to place composing exquisite
poems in praise of the deities enshrined in the villages
they visited, and set them to music.
You can observe
this process of
local myths and
legends receiving
wider acceptance
even today. Can
you find some
examples
around you?
Fig. 1
A page from a south
Indian manuscript of
the Bhagavad Gita.
?
Page 3
61
DEVOTIONAL PATHS
TO THE DIVINE
Y
ou may have seen people perform rituals of
worship, or singing , or ,
or even repeating the name of God in silence, and
noticed that some of them are moved to tears. Such
intense devotion or love of God is the legacy of various
since the eighth century.
The Idea of a Supreme God
Before large kingdoms emerged, different groups
of people worshipped their own gods and goddesses.
As people were brought together through the growth
of towns, trade and empires, new ideas began to
develop. The idea that all living things pass through
countless cycles of birth and rebirth performing good
deeds and bad came to be widely accepted. Similarly,
the idea that all human beings are not equal even at
birth gained ground during this period. The belief that
social privileges came from birth in a “noble” family or
a “high” caste was the subject of many learned texts.
Many people were uneasy with such ideas and
turned to the teachings of the Buddha or the Jainas
according to which it was possible to overcome social
differences and break the cycle of rebirth through
personal effort. Others felt attracted to the idea of a
Supreme God who could deliver humans from such
bondage if approached with devotion (or bhakti).
This idea, advocated in the grew in
popularity in the early centuries of the Common Era.
DEVOTIONAL PATHS
TO THE DIVINE
The beginning of
Bhakti
Worship of certain
deities, which
became a central
feature of later
Hinduism, gained in
importance. These
deities included
Shiva, Vishnu, and
goddesses such as
Durga. These deities
were worshipped
through Bhakti, an
idea that became
very popular at
this time. Bhakti is
generally understood
as a person’s
devotion to his or
her chosen deity.
Anybody, whether
rich or poor, belonging
to the so-called ‘high’
or ‘low’ castes, man
or woman, could
follow the path of
Bhakti. The idea of
Bhakti is present in
the Bhagavad Gita, a
sacred book of
the Hindus.
62
Shiva, Vishnu and
Durga as supreme
deities came to
be worshipped
through elaborate
rituals. At the
same time, gods
and goddesses
worshipped in
different areas
c a m e t o b e
identified with
Shiva, Vishnu
or Durga. In the
process, local myths and legends became a part of the
Puranic stories, and methods of worship recommended
in the Puranas were introduced into the local cults.
Eventually the Puranas also laid down that it was
possible for devotees to receive the grace of God
regardless of their caste status. The idea of bhakti
became so popular that even Buddhists and Jainas
adopted these beliefs.
Bhakti in South India –
Nayanars and Alvars
The seventh to ninth centuries saw the emergence of
new religious movements, led by the Nayanars (saints
devoted to Shiva) and Alvars (saints devoted to Vishnu)
who came from all castes including those considered
“untouchable” like the Pulaiyar and the Panars. They
were sharply critical of the Buddhists and Jainas
and preached ardent love of Shiva or Vishnu as the
path to salvation. They drew upon the ideals of love
and heroism as found in the Sangam literature (the
earliest example of Tamil literature, composed during
the early centuries of the Common Era) and blended
them with the values of bhakti. The Nayanars and
Alvars went from place to place composing exquisite
poems in praise of the deities enshrined in the villages
they visited, and set them to music.
You can observe
this process of
local myths and
legends receiving
wider acceptance
even today. Can
you find some
examples
around you?
Fig. 1
A page from a south
Indian manuscript of
the Bhagavad Gita.
?
63
DEVOTIONAL PATHS
TO THE DIVINE
Nayanars and Alvars
There were 63 Nayanars, who belonged to different
social backgrounds, such as potters, “untouchable”
workers, peasants, hunters, soldiers, Brahmanas and
chiefs. The best known among them were Appar,
Sambandar, Sundarar and Manikkavasagar. There are
two sets of compilations of their songs – Tevaram and
Tiruvacakam.
There were 12 Alvars, who came from equally
divergent backgrounds, the best known being
Periyalvar, his daughter Andal, Tondaradippodi Alvar
and Nammalvar. Their songs were compiled in the Divya
Prabandham.
Between the tenth and twelfth centuries, the Chola
and Pandya kings built elaborate temples around many
of the shrines visited by the saint-poets, strengthening
the links between the bhakti tradition and temple
worship. This was also the time when their poems
were compiled. Besides, hagiographies or religious
biographies of the Alvars and Nayanars were also
composed. Today we use these texts as sources for
writing histories of the bhakti tradition.
The devotee and the Lord
This is a composition of Manikkavasagar:
How does the poet describe his relationship
with the deity?
Hagiography
?
Fig. 2
A bronze image of
Manikkavasagar.
Page 4
61
DEVOTIONAL PATHS
TO THE DIVINE
Y
ou may have seen people perform rituals of
worship, or singing , or ,
or even repeating the name of God in silence, and
noticed that some of them are moved to tears. Such
intense devotion or love of God is the legacy of various
since the eighth century.
The Idea of a Supreme God
Before large kingdoms emerged, different groups
of people worshipped their own gods and goddesses.
As people were brought together through the growth
of towns, trade and empires, new ideas began to
develop. The idea that all living things pass through
countless cycles of birth and rebirth performing good
deeds and bad came to be widely accepted. Similarly,
the idea that all human beings are not equal even at
birth gained ground during this period. The belief that
social privileges came from birth in a “noble” family or
a “high” caste was the subject of many learned texts.
Many people were uneasy with such ideas and
turned to the teachings of the Buddha or the Jainas
according to which it was possible to overcome social
differences and break the cycle of rebirth through
personal effort. Others felt attracted to the idea of a
Supreme God who could deliver humans from such
bondage if approached with devotion (or bhakti).
This idea, advocated in the grew in
popularity in the early centuries of the Common Era.
DEVOTIONAL PATHS
TO THE DIVINE
The beginning of
Bhakti
Worship of certain
deities, which
became a central
feature of later
Hinduism, gained in
importance. These
deities included
Shiva, Vishnu, and
goddesses such as
Durga. These deities
were worshipped
through Bhakti, an
idea that became
very popular at
this time. Bhakti is
generally understood
as a person’s
devotion to his or
her chosen deity.
Anybody, whether
rich or poor, belonging
to the so-called ‘high’
or ‘low’ castes, man
or woman, could
follow the path of
Bhakti. The idea of
Bhakti is present in
the Bhagavad Gita, a
sacred book of
the Hindus.
62
Shiva, Vishnu and
Durga as supreme
deities came to
be worshipped
through elaborate
rituals. At the
same time, gods
and goddesses
worshipped in
different areas
c a m e t o b e
identified with
Shiva, Vishnu
or Durga. In the
process, local myths and legends became a part of the
Puranic stories, and methods of worship recommended
in the Puranas were introduced into the local cults.
Eventually the Puranas also laid down that it was
possible for devotees to receive the grace of God
regardless of their caste status. The idea of bhakti
became so popular that even Buddhists and Jainas
adopted these beliefs.
Bhakti in South India –
Nayanars and Alvars
The seventh to ninth centuries saw the emergence of
new religious movements, led by the Nayanars (saints
devoted to Shiva) and Alvars (saints devoted to Vishnu)
who came from all castes including those considered
“untouchable” like the Pulaiyar and the Panars. They
were sharply critical of the Buddhists and Jainas
and preached ardent love of Shiva or Vishnu as the
path to salvation. They drew upon the ideals of love
and heroism as found in the Sangam literature (the
earliest example of Tamil literature, composed during
the early centuries of the Common Era) and blended
them with the values of bhakti. The Nayanars and
Alvars went from place to place composing exquisite
poems in praise of the deities enshrined in the villages
they visited, and set them to music.
You can observe
this process of
local myths and
legends receiving
wider acceptance
even today. Can
you find some
examples
around you?
Fig. 1
A page from a south
Indian manuscript of
the Bhagavad Gita.
?
63
DEVOTIONAL PATHS
TO THE DIVINE
Nayanars and Alvars
There were 63 Nayanars, who belonged to different
social backgrounds, such as potters, “untouchable”
workers, peasants, hunters, soldiers, Brahmanas and
chiefs. The best known among them were Appar,
Sambandar, Sundarar and Manikkavasagar. There are
two sets of compilations of their songs – Tevaram and
Tiruvacakam.
There were 12 Alvars, who came from equally
divergent backgrounds, the best known being
Periyalvar, his daughter Andal, Tondaradippodi Alvar
and Nammalvar. Their songs were compiled in the Divya
Prabandham.
Between the tenth and twelfth centuries, the Chola
and Pandya kings built elaborate temples around many
of the shrines visited by the saint-poets, strengthening
the links between the bhakti tradition and temple
worship. This was also the time when their poems
were compiled. Besides, hagiographies or religious
biographies of the Alvars and Nayanars were also
composed. Today we use these texts as sources for
writing histories of the bhakti tradition.
The devotee and the Lord
This is a composition of Manikkavasagar:
How does the poet describe his relationship
with the deity?
Hagiography
?
Fig. 2
A bronze image of
Manikkavasagar.
64
?
Philosophy and Bhakti
of India, was born in Kerala in the eighth century.
He was an advocate of Advaita or the doctrine of
the oneness of the individual soul and the Supreme
God which is the Ultimate Reality. He taught that
Brahman, the only or Ultimate Reality, was formless
and without any attributes. He considered the world
around us to be an illusion or , and preached
renunciation of the world and adoption of the path of
knowledge to understand the true nature of Brahman
and attain salvation.
Ramanuja, born in Tamil Nadu in the eleventh
century, was deeply influenced by the Alvars.
According to him the best means of attaining
salvation was through intense devotion to Vishnu.
Vishnu in His grace helps the devotee to attain the
bliss of union with Him. He propounded the doctrine
even when united with the Supreme God remained
distinct. Ramanuja’s doctrine greatly inspired the
new strand of bhakti which developed in north
India subsequently.
Basavanna’s Virashaivism
We noted earlier the connection between the Tamil
bhakti movement and temple worship. This in turn
led to a reaction that is best represented in the
Virashaiva movement initiated by Basavanna and his
companions like Allama Prabhu and Akkamahadevi.
This movement began in Karnataka in the
mid-twelfth century. The Virashaivas argued strongly
for the equality of all human beings and against
Brahmanical ideas about caste and the treatment of
women. They were also against all forms of ritual and
idol worship.
Try and find out
more about the
ideas of Shankara
or Ramanuja.
Page 5
61
DEVOTIONAL PATHS
TO THE DIVINE
Y
ou may have seen people perform rituals of
worship, or singing , or ,
or even repeating the name of God in silence, and
noticed that some of them are moved to tears. Such
intense devotion or love of God is the legacy of various
since the eighth century.
The Idea of a Supreme God
Before large kingdoms emerged, different groups
of people worshipped their own gods and goddesses.
As people were brought together through the growth
of towns, trade and empires, new ideas began to
develop. The idea that all living things pass through
countless cycles of birth and rebirth performing good
deeds and bad came to be widely accepted. Similarly,
the idea that all human beings are not equal even at
birth gained ground during this period. The belief that
social privileges came from birth in a “noble” family or
a “high” caste was the subject of many learned texts.
Many people were uneasy with such ideas and
turned to the teachings of the Buddha or the Jainas
according to which it was possible to overcome social
differences and break the cycle of rebirth through
personal effort. Others felt attracted to the idea of a
Supreme God who could deliver humans from such
bondage if approached with devotion (or bhakti).
This idea, advocated in the grew in
popularity in the early centuries of the Common Era.
DEVOTIONAL PATHS
TO THE DIVINE
The beginning of
Bhakti
Worship of certain
deities, which
became a central
feature of later
Hinduism, gained in
importance. These
deities included
Shiva, Vishnu, and
goddesses such as
Durga. These deities
were worshipped
through Bhakti, an
idea that became
very popular at
this time. Bhakti is
generally understood
as a person’s
devotion to his or
her chosen deity.
Anybody, whether
rich or poor, belonging
to the so-called ‘high’
or ‘low’ castes, man
or woman, could
follow the path of
Bhakti. The idea of
Bhakti is present in
the Bhagavad Gita, a
sacred book of
the Hindus.
62
Shiva, Vishnu and
Durga as supreme
deities came to
be worshipped
through elaborate
rituals. At the
same time, gods
and goddesses
worshipped in
different areas
c a m e t o b e
identified with
Shiva, Vishnu
or Durga. In the
process, local myths and legends became a part of the
Puranic stories, and methods of worship recommended
in the Puranas were introduced into the local cults.
Eventually the Puranas also laid down that it was
possible for devotees to receive the grace of God
regardless of their caste status. The idea of bhakti
became so popular that even Buddhists and Jainas
adopted these beliefs.
Bhakti in South India –
Nayanars and Alvars
The seventh to ninth centuries saw the emergence of
new religious movements, led by the Nayanars (saints
devoted to Shiva) and Alvars (saints devoted to Vishnu)
who came from all castes including those considered
“untouchable” like the Pulaiyar and the Panars. They
were sharply critical of the Buddhists and Jainas
and preached ardent love of Shiva or Vishnu as the
path to salvation. They drew upon the ideals of love
and heroism as found in the Sangam literature (the
earliest example of Tamil literature, composed during
the early centuries of the Common Era) and blended
them with the values of bhakti. The Nayanars and
Alvars went from place to place composing exquisite
poems in praise of the deities enshrined in the villages
they visited, and set them to music.
You can observe
this process of
local myths and
legends receiving
wider acceptance
even today. Can
you find some
examples
around you?
Fig. 1
A page from a south
Indian manuscript of
the Bhagavad Gita.
?
63
DEVOTIONAL PATHS
TO THE DIVINE
Nayanars and Alvars
There were 63 Nayanars, who belonged to different
social backgrounds, such as potters, “untouchable”
workers, peasants, hunters, soldiers, Brahmanas and
chiefs. The best known among them were Appar,
Sambandar, Sundarar and Manikkavasagar. There are
two sets of compilations of their songs – Tevaram and
Tiruvacakam.
There were 12 Alvars, who came from equally
divergent backgrounds, the best known being
Periyalvar, his daughter Andal, Tondaradippodi Alvar
and Nammalvar. Their songs were compiled in the Divya
Prabandham.
Between the tenth and twelfth centuries, the Chola
and Pandya kings built elaborate temples around many
of the shrines visited by the saint-poets, strengthening
the links between the bhakti tradition and temple
worship. This was also the time when their poems
were compiled. Besides, hagiographies or religious
biographies of the Alvars and Nayanars were also
composed. Today we use these texts as sources for
writing histories of the bhakti tradition.
The devotee and the Lord
This is a composition of Manikkavasagar:
How does the poet describe his relationship
with the deity?
Hagiography
?
Fig. 2
A bronze image of
Manikkavasagar.
64
?
Philosophy and Bhakti
of India, was born in Kerala in the eighth century.
He was an advocate of Advaita or the doctrine of
the oneness of the individual soul and the Supreme
God which is the Ultimate Reality. He taught that
Brahman, the only or Ultimate Reality, was formless
and without any attributes. He considered the world
around us to be an illusion or , and preached
renunciation of the world and adoption of the path of
knowledge to understand the true nature of Brahman
and attain salvation.
Ramanuja, born in Tamil Nadu in the eleventh
century, was deeply influenced by the Alvars.
According to him the best means of attaining
salvation was through intense devotion to Vishnu.
Vishnu in His grace helps the devotee to attain the
bliss of union with Him. He propounded the doctrine
even when united with the Supreme God remained
distinct. Ramanuja’s doctrine greatly inspired the
new strand of bhakti which developed in north
India subsequently.
Basavanna’s Virashaivism
We noted earlier the connection between the Tamil
bhakti movement and temple worship. This in turn
led to a reaction that is best represented in the
Virashaiva movement initiated by Basavanna and his
companions like Allama Prabhu and Akkamahadevi.
This movement began in Karnataka in the
mid-twelfth century. The Virashaivas argued strongly
for the equality of all human beings and against
Brahmanical ideas about caste and the treatment of
women. They were also against all forms of ritual and
idol worship.
Try and find out
more about the
ideas of Shankara
or Ramanuja.
65
DEVOTIONAL PATHS
TO THE DIVINE
?
Virashaiva vachanas
These are vachanas or sayings attributed to Basavanna:
The rich,
Will make temples for Shiva.
What shall I,
A poor man,
Do?
My legs are pillars,
The body the shrine,
The head a cupola
Of gold.
Listen, O Lord of the meeting rivers,
Things standing shall fall,
But the moving ever shall stay.
What is the temple that Basavanna is offering to God?
Bhakti Movement in the Decean
From the thirteenth to the seventeenth centuries,
Maharashtra saw a great number of saint-poets, whose
songs in simple Marathi continue to inspire people.
The most important among them were Dnyaneshwar
(Gyaneshwar), Namdev, Eknath and Tukaram as well
as women like Sakhubai and the family of Chokhamela,
who belonged to the “untouchable” Mahar caste. This
regional tradition of bhakti focused on the Vitthala (a
form of Vishnu) temple in Pandharpur, as well as on
the notion of a personal god residing in the hearts of
all people.
These saint-poets rejected all forms of ritualism,
outward display of piety and social differences
based on birth. In fact, they even rejected the idea of
renunciation and preferred to live with their families,
earning their livelihood like any other person, while
humbly serving fellow human beings in need. A new
humanist idea emerged as they insisted that bhakti
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