(Part - 1) - Self and Personality Class 12 Psychology

Self and Personality

Self and personality are traits that define our being and identity, acquired from our experiences and exhibited through our behavior. 

• These characteristics differentiate individuals from one another, causing them to react differently in similar circumstances. 
• However, people may also exhibit similar behavior across diverse situations. 
• Therefore, it can be concluded that individual personalities are influenced by various situations, leading to diverse expressions of personality in different contexts.

Concept of Self

• Personal identity is what makes a person unique, encompassing attributes like name, qualities, capabilities, and beliefs.
• Social identity ties an individual to a specific social or cultural group, as indicated by affiliations such as Hindu, Muslim, Brahmin, adivasi, North Indian, or South Indian.
• Self represents an individual's conscious experiences, thoughts, and feelings regarding themselves, defining their existence personally and socially.

Self as Subject and Self as Object

Individuals can describe themselves in two ways:

• Firstly, they may describe themselves as an entity that performs actions, such as "I am a baker," where the self is regarded as a "subject" who takes actions.
• Secondly, they may describe themselves as an entity that is affected by something, such as "I am someone who gets easily hurt," where the self is seen as an "object" that is influenced.

Kinds of Self

• Personal identity refers to individual characteristics such as one's name, personal qualities like honesty and hard work, potential and abilities such as singing or dancing, and beliefs such as faith in God.
• Social identity, on the other hand, pertains to aspects that connect a person with a community or culture, such as religion (Hindu, Sikh), regional identity (North Indian or South Indian), and other group affiliations.

Cognitive and Behavioural aspects of Self

• Self-concept is the perception and beliefs an individual has about their abilities and traits. 
• It can be characterized as either positive or negative. 
• The most common approach to assessing self-concept is by directly asking the individual about their own perceptions of themselves.

Self-esteem

• Self-esteem refers to a person's subjective evaluation and assessment of their own worth and value. Research suggests that children, by the age of 6-7 years, have developed self-esteem in at least four areas, namely academic competence, social skills, physical or athletic abilities, and physical appearance. These areas of self-esteem tend to become more defined and nuanced as a person grows older.
• Our ability to view ourselves in terms of consistent traits and characteristics allows us to integrate individual self-evaluations into an overall mental image of ourselves, which is known as self-esteem. Self-esteem has a significant correlation with our everyday behavior. 

• For example, children with high academic self-esteem tend to perform better in school than those with low academic self-esteem, and children with high social self-esteem are more well-liked by their peers compared to those with low social self-esteem. 
• In contrast, children with low self-esteem are often seen to exhibit symptoms of anxiety, depression, and increased antisocial behavior, while children with high self-esteem tend to display confidence, independence, and sociability.
• Positive and supportive parenting plays an important role in fostering high self-esteem in children, as it communicates that they are valued and competent. 
• Conversely, children who receive excessive assistance or overbearing parental control, even when not needed, may experience lower levels of self-esteem.

Self-efficacy

• Individuals vary in their beliefs regarding the extent to which they are responsible for their life outcomes, versus attributing them to factors such as luck or fate, or external situational factors like passing an exam. 
• Those who believe they possess the necessary abilities or skills required to succeed in a particular situation exhibit high levels of self-efficacy. The concept of self-efficacy is rooted in Bandura’s social learning theory, which posits that individuals learn behavior through observation and imitation of others.
• A person's expectations of achievement and their level of confidence in their own effectiveness also play a role in determining their behavior and willingness to take risks. A strong sense of self-efficacy empowers individuals to choose, shape, and influence their life circumstances, and also reduces their sense of fear.
• The development of a strong sense of self-efficacy can be facilitated by positive models presented by society, parents, and personal experiences during childhood and formative years.

Self-regulation

• Self-regulation refers to the capacity to control and manage our actions and behaviour. 
• Individuals who are adept at modifying their behaviour based on external circumstances are considered to possess high self-monitoring skills. 
• There are situations in life where we must resist situational pressures and maintain control over our actions, which can be achieved through willpower. 
• The ability to delay or postpone immediate gratification of desires is known as self-control, which is critical in achieving long-term objectives. 
• Some psychological techniques used for self-control include:
  a) Self-observation: Observing our own behavior can give us useful information that we can use to modify, strengthen or change certain aspects of ourselves.
  b) Self-instruction: We often give ourselves instructions on how to behave or what to do. These self-instructions are effective in regulating our behavior.
  c) Self-reward: This involves rewarding ourselves for behaviors that have positive outcomes.

Culture and Self

The features and traits of an individual's self are influenced by the cultural environment in which they live. For example, a distinction can be drawn between Indian and Western cultures.

• In Western cultures, there is a clear separation between the individual and the cultural group. The boundaries between the self and group are distinct and well-defined. The members of the group maintain their individuality and independence. The Western culture is characterized by individualism.
• In Indian culture, there is no clear separation between the self and one's own group, and both coexist harmoniously. There is a high degree of dependency and no well-defined boundaries between the individual and the group. Indian culture is collectivistic in nature.

Concept of Personality

• The term "personality" is derived from the Latin word "persona," which was used to refer to the mask worn by actors in ancient Roman theatre to change their facial appearance. 
• Personality is a term that describes our unique ways of responding to individuals and situations. 
• It refers to the distinct and stable qualities that define an individual's behavior across different situations and over time. 
• Personality is marked by consistency in behavior, thought, and emotion across different situations and time periods. 
• However, people's behavior can vary depending on the circumstances as it helps them adapt to their environment. 
• Understanding someone's personality allows us to predict how they will probably behave in various circumstances. 
• This knowledge of personality helps us interact with people in a practical and appropriate manner.

Characteristics of Personality

• Personality has two components, physical and psychological.
• Individuals have a unique way of expressing their personality through their behaviour.
• Personality features are relatively stable and do not change easily over time.
• However, some personality features may change in response to internal or external situations, making personality adaptable to circumstances.

Major Approaches to the Study of Personality

Type Approach

This approach seeks to understand personality by identifying broad patterns in behavior. It looks at a wide range of characteristics in a person's behavior.
The different theories based on the type approach can be described as follows:

1. Sheldon’s Body Type Theory

• According to the theory of body type and personality, there is a close relationship between a person's physical body type and their personality traits. 
• Sheldon proposed a typology consisting of three categories: Endomorphic, Mesomorphic, and Ectomorphic.
  (i) People who have an Endomorphic body type are round and chubby, and they tend to be sociable, outgoing, and friendly.
  (ii) Ectomorphs have an athletic body type and are typically courageous, strong, and assertive.
  (iii) Mesomorphs are lean and delicate in body type, and tend to be brainy and sensitive.

2. Carl Jung Theory

• The theory proposed by Carl Jung categorizes people into two groups - Extroverts and Introverts. The characteristics of these categories are:
• Introverts tend to be more reserved and prefer solitude. They tend to withdraw when they face emotional challenges in their lives.
• Extroverts are more sociable and outgoing. They enjoy being around people and tend to gravitate towards jobs that involve direct interaction with others, such as teaching or psychology.

3. Type Theory: 

The theory of Type A and Type B personalities was introduced by Friedman and Rosenman, which classified individuals into four categories. These categories are described in detail as follows:

• Type A personalities are highly motivated workaholics who lack patience and are prone to hypertension.
• Type B personalities are the opposite of Type A, being relaxed and easy-going.
• Type C personalities are cooperative individuals who tend to suppress their emotions and are prone to cancer.
• Type D personalities have a pessimistic outlook on life and are prone to depression.

Trait  Approach

The trait approach is centered on identifying consistent and stable psychological characteristics that differentiate individuals from each other. It primarily emphasizes the dominant traits of an individual.
Here are some of the theories based on the trait approach:
1. Allport’s Trait Theory: Allport's theory focuses on three types of traits that help to comprehend human personality - Cardinal Traits, Central Traits, and Secondary traits. 

• Cardinal traits are very broad and general, and a person becomes recognized for these traits throughout their life. For instance, Mahatma Gandhi was known for his honesty and non-violence, which were his cardinal traits. 
• Central traits are less generalized than cardinal traits and form the basis of a person's personality. They can be used to describe a person's job profile. 
• Secondary traits, on the other hand, are situational and not as generalized as central or cardinal traits. For instance, if Raj likes to watch movies, then it is an example of a secondary trait.

2. Eysenck’s Factor Theory:  This theory proposes three dimensions that encompass several traits. Here are the descriptions of each dimension:

• Neuroticism vs Emotional Stability: This dimension relates to a person's ability to control their emotions. Individuals who score high on neuroticism are emotionally unstable, moody, and anxious. Conversely, those who score high on emotional stability are calm and patient.
• Extraversion vs Introversion: This dimension pertains to a person's social behavior, whether they are outgoing or withdrawn. Those who score high on extraversion are socially active, while introverts tend to be reserved and withdrawn.
• Psychoticism vs Sociability: This dimension concerns a person's sociability and their tendency to be anti-social or cooperative. People who score high on psychoticism are egoistic and anti-social, while individuals who score high on sociability are friendly and cooperative. The Eysenck Personality Questionnaire is used to assess these dimensions of personality.

3. Cattell: Personality Factors:  Cattell identified 16 fundamental or underlying traits, known as source traits, that are stable and consistent in shaping an individual's personality. Surface traits, on the other hand, are a result of the interaction of these source traits. Cattell created a personality assessment tool called the 16PF (sixteen personality factor) questionnaire to measure these source traits.

4. Eysenck's Theory: H.J. Eysenck proposed a theory suggesting that personality can be simplified into two main dimensions, which are rooted in biology and genetics. Each dimension encompasses various specific traits:

• Neuroticism vs. Emotional Stability: This dimension reflects the extent to which individuals can manage their emotions. On one end are individuals characterized as neurotic, exhibiting traits such as anxiety, moodiness, touchiness, restlessness, and a lack of control. On the opposite end are people who are calm, even-tempered, reliable, and maintain control over their emotions.
• Extraversion vs. Introversion: This dimension pertains to how socially outgoing or withdrawn individuals are. One extreme comprises individuals who are active, sociable, impulsive, and seek thrills, while the other end consists of those who are passive, quiet, cautious, and reserved.
• In a later study, Eysenck introduced a third dimension, Psychoticism vs. Sociability, which is believed to interact with the previously mentioned dimensions. Individuals scoring high on the psychoticism dimension tend to exhibit traits like hostility, egocentrism, and antisocial behavior.
  The Eysenck Personality Questionnaire is a test utilized to explore these personality dimensions.

Five-Factor Model of Personality

Paul Costa and Robert McCrae proposed a model of personality factors consisting of 5 dimensions.
These dimensions include:

1. Openness to Experience: People who score high on this factor tend to be curious, imaginative, and receptive to new experiences. Conversely, those who score low are inflexible and set in their ways.
2. Extraversion: Those who score high on this dimension are generally outgoing and sociable, while those who score low are more reserved and introverted.
3. Agreeableness: Individuals who score high on this factor are typically friendly, cooperative, and kind, while those who score low tend to be more self-centered and less interested in others.
4. Neuroticism: People who score high on this factor tend to be emotionally unstable, moody, and anxious. In contrast, those who score low are usually calm, patient, and emotionally stable.
5. Conscientiousness: Those who score high on this factor tend to be organized, responsible, and goal-oriented, while those who score low are more carefree and impulsive.

Psychodynamic Approach

Dr. Sigmund Freud introduced the psychodynamic approach in his clinical practice where he used hypnosis to treat his patients. He observed that patients felt relieved when they shared their problems. This led him to develop the technique of free association, in which people could share their problems in an unfiltered manner. Freud also used dream analysis to understand how the mind works. 

Levels of Consciousness
According to the psychodynamic approach, there are three levels of consciousness:

• Conscious Mind: people are aware of their thoughts, feelings, and mental activities.
• Preconscious Mind: includes thoughts, feelings, actions, and mental activities that can be brought to awareness if attended closely.
• Unconscious Mind: includes thoughts, feelings, and actions that people are not aware of.

Structure of Personality
A person's personality is determined by the relative strength of their identity, ego, and superego. When there is a conflict between a person's identity and their superego, it can result in a Freudian Slip.The structure of personality can be explained in the following way:

• The Id operates based on the pleasure principle and is focused on the immediate satisfaction of needs.
• The Ego operates based on the reality principle and is focused on satisfying needs in accordance with reality.
• The Superego operates based on moral principles and allows for needs to be fulfilled only if they are ethical.

Ego Defense Mechanism
The ego defense mechanism is a strategy to reduce anxiety by altering one's perception of reality.
Some of the major defense mechanisms are described below:

• Repression: Anxiety-triggering thoughts are pushed away by the unconscious mind, and individuals become unaware of them.
• Projection: Individuals attribute their own qualities to others.
• Denial: People refuse to acknowledge the truth and completely reject it.
• Reaction Formation: People defend against anxiety by behaving in a way that is contrary to their true feelings.
• Rationalization: People try to justify unreasonable emotions by making them seem logical and reasonable.

Stages of Personality Development
Freudian psychology proposes that there are 5 stages of psychological development, known as psychosexual development.
These stages are described in detail below:

• Oral Stage: During this stage, a newborn's focus is on the mouth and they derive pleasure from oral activities such as breastfeeding, thumb sucking, and biting.
• Anal Stage: Around the age of 2 or 3, children learn to control their bodily functions of urination and defecation in response to societal demands.
• Phallic Stage: The focus in this stage is on the genitals, and children around the age of 4-5 become aware of sexuality, gender differences, and sexual relationships between their parents. Boys experience the Oedipus Complex, where they develop romantic feelings for their mother and view their father as a rival. Girls experience the Electra Complex, where they develop romantic feelings for their father and view their mother as a rival.
• Latency Stage: During this stage, sexual urges become latent and are dormant, lasting from around 7 years of age to puberty.
• Genital Stage: This is the final stage, where maturity is attained, and individuals learn to interact with members of the opposite sex in socially and sexually mature ways.