Definitions
Frederic Sorrieu: He was a French artist famous for prints prepared in 1848 that visualized the dream of a world consisting of Democratic and Social Republics.
Frederic Sorrieu - Universal Democratic and Social Republic
Question for Key Concepts: The Rise of Nationalism in Europe
Try yourself:Choose the correct nationality of the artist Frederic Sorrieu who visualised in his painting a society made up of Democratic and Social Republic.
Explanation
The Correct Option is C
- Frederic Sorrieu was a French artist. He was born in the year 1807 in Foix, France, and he died in the year 1877 in Paris, France.
- Sorrieu was well-known for producing a series of four prints in the mid-19th century that envisioned a unified world composed of 'Democratic and Social Republics'.
- As a French artist, he was influenced by the events and political climate of his time, particularly the French Revolution and the ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity.
- His most famous artworks depict the nations of the world, personified as maidens, following the French goddess of Liberty.
- Therefore, Frederic Sorrieu was not German, Swiss or American, but a French artist who made significant contributions to the world of art and political symbolism.
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Nineteenth-Century: Associated with the rise of nationalism and nation-states.
Nationalism: A feeling of oneness with the society or the state, love and devotion for the motherland and belief in the political identity of one's country are the basic attributes of nationalism.
Nation State: A state that establishes itself as a separate political and geographical entity and functions as a complete and sovereign territorial unit. This concept emerged in 19th century Europe as a result of the growth of nationalism.
Modern State: A state in which sovereignty is exercised by a centralized power over a specific territory and population.
Absolutist Government: A system of government wherein limitless powers is vested in a single person or body. It is a monarchical form of government in which the ruler is the absolute authority and is not answerable to anybody.
French Revolution (1789)
- It marks the beginning of nationalism.
- France was under the absolute monarchy in 1789.
- The Revolution transferred sovereignty from the monarch to the French people.
- Ideas of La Patrie (the fatherhood) and Le citoyen (the citizen) adopted.
- French Flag, the tricolour, adopted replacing the royal standard.
- Estates-General elected by citizens and renamed the National Assembly.
- A centralized political system was established.
- Internal custom dues abolished.
- Uniform weights and measures adopted.
- French became the language of the nation.
- French armies moved into Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, and Italy in the 1790's with a promise of liberating the people from their despotic rulers.
Napoleon (1769-1821)
- Ruled France from 1799 to 1815.
- Assumed absolute powers in 1799 by becoming the First Consul.
- Civil Code/Napoleonic Code (1804)
- Established equality before the law.
- Abolished all privileges based on birth.
- Granted the right to property to French citizens.
- Simplified administrative divisions.
- Abolished feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom.
- Removed restrictions on guilds in towns.
- Improved transport and communication.
- Militarily, Napoleon proved to be an oppressor for the people of the conquered territories. Taxation and censorship were imposed and military services were made mandatory.
Europe in the mid-18th Century
There were no Nation States as the Europeans never saw themselves as sharing a common identity or culture.
Example: The Habsburg Empire of Austria–Hungary comprised French, Italian and German-speaking people.
Europe was broadly divided into two classes during this period namely:
1. Aristocracy: The landowning class. Numerically small, but dominated Europe, both socially and politically. Spoke French which was considered the language of the high society. Families were connected through marriage.
2. Peasantry: Tenants and small landowners who worked as serfs. Cultivated the lands of the aristocratic lords.
The growth of trade and industrial production facilitated the growth of towns and the rise of a commercial class of traders. Consequently, the new conscious, educated, liberal middle class emerged and popularized nationalism and stood for the abolition of aristocracy.
Liberal Nationalism
It Means Individual freedom, Equality before the law, Government by consent, Freedom of markets, Abolition of state-imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital.
Liberalism became the main concern in Europe after the French Revolution because:
(a) Universal Adult Suffrage was not granted to the people by the Napoleonic Code.
(b) Men without property and women were denied the right to vote.
(c) Women were made subject to the authority of men.
(d) Markets were not free as the 39 confederacies of France had their own laws which posed problems for the free movement of goods.
(e) There were no standard weights and measures and no fixed rates of customs duties, which greatly affected the trade.
Conservatism
Stands for the preservation of the traditional institutions of state and society such as the monarchy, the church, social hierarchies and family along with the modern changes introduced by Napoleon. Conservatism as a political ideology arose after the defeat of Napoleon in 1815 at the Battle of Waterloo.
The conservative regimes:
- Were autocratic
- Were intolerant to criticism and dissent
- Adopted the censorship of press for curbing the liberal ideals
- Discouraged any questions that challenged their legitimacy
Congress of Vienna (1815)
For drawing a new settlement for Europe and restoring the monarchies that were overthrown by Napoleon for creation of a new conservative order.
The salient features of the Treaty were as follows:
- The Bourbon dynasty was restored to power in France.
- France was disposed of its conquered territories.
- Kingdom of the Netherlands, which included Belgium, was set up in the North and Genoa was set up in the South for preventing French expansion in future.
- Prussia was given new territories, including a portion of Saxony.
- Austria got control over Northern Italy.
- Russia got Poland. Napoleon's confederation of 39 states was not changed.
Question for Key Concepts: The Rise of Nationalism in Europe
Try yourself: Which of the following countries did not attend the Congress of Vienna?
Explanation
The Correct Option is D
- Historical Context
- The Congress of Vienna was a conference between ambassadors that took place from 1814 to 1815. Its purpose was to settle issues and redraw the continent's political map after the defeat of Napoleonic France. The main players were the "Great Powers" of Europe, which included Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria.
- Exclusion of Switzerland
- Switzerland, being a small, landlocked country in Central Europe, did not attend the Congress of Vienna. This is not to say it was completely disregarded; in fact, the Congress recognized Switzerland as a neutral state, a status it retains to this day. However, it was not actively involved in the discussions and decision-making processes of the Congress.
- Reasons for Exclusion
- The main reason for Switzerland's exclusion was its relative lack of power and influence compared to the major European players. The Congress was primarily concerned with the balance of power among the "Great Powers," ensuring that no single nation could become dangerously dominant as France had under Napoleon. As such, smaller countries like Switzerland were not included in the negotiations.
- Another reason for Switzerland's exclusion is its longstanding tradition of neutrality. Since the early 16th century, Switzerland has maintained a policy of armed neutrality, meaning it does not participate in foreign wars. This policy would have made it unsuitable for the power-balancing act of the Congress of Vienna.
- Aftermath of the Congress for Switzerland
- Despite its absence, the Congress of Vienna had significant impacts on Switzerland. The Congress formally recognized Switzerland's perpetual neutrality, which has shaped the country's international relations to this day. The Swiss Confederation was also expanded to include three additional cantons.
- Source
- This information is based on historical records and can be further explored on EduRev and other educational platforms.
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The Revolutionaries
The Revolutionaries uphold the idea of liberalism and were against the conservative regimes of the 19th Century.
Many secret societies were formed whose main aims were:
- Training the revolutionaries and spreading their ideas throughout Europe.
- Opposing monarchical governments established after the Vienna Congress of 1815.
- Fighting for liberty and freedom from autocratic rule.
- Emphasizing the idea of creation of nation-states.
Romanticism as part of cultural movement
- Romantic poets and artists glorified emotions and mystic feelings in place of reason and science.
- They helped to develop a sense of shared collective heritage.
- They encouraged the spirit of the nation through folk songs, poetry and dances.
- Greek War of Independence was the culmination of nationalistic feelings and Romantic imagination. Poets and artists mobilized public opinion in favour of the Greeks living under the Ottoman Empire.
- Romantic nationalism in Poland took place even after Poland was partitioned by the Great Powers Russia, Prussia and Austria. Nationalistic feelings in Poland were kept alive through music and language.
The Revolution of the Liberals (1848)
- In 1848 another revolution occurred in France. A Republic was established and universal male suffrage was granted in France.
- In other parts of Europe, such as, Germany, Italy, Poland and Austro-Hungarian Empire, the liberal middle-class demanded constitutionalism with national unification.
- They demanded creation of Nation States with freedom of press and freedom of association.
The making of Germany and Italy
- Unification of Germany was achieved by a national movement under the leadership of Otto Von Bismarck, Chief Minister of Prussia.
- King Victor Emmanuel II unified Italy after defeating the Austrian forces in 1859.
Visualizing the Nation
- Nations were portrayed as female figures by artists in the 18th and 19th centuries.
- Ideas of liberty, justice and republic were represented by the artists as female allegory.
- Marianne a popular Christian name was given to the imaginary female figure which represented France as a nation. Statues of Marianne were placed in public squares. She is shown wearing a red cap, symbolizing liberty and a tri-colored cockade, symbolizing freedom.
- Germania was the imaginary female figure chosen as an allegory for the German nation. Germania wore a crown of oak leaves. Oak stood for heroism in Germany.
Question for Key Concepts: The Rise of Nationalism in Europe
Try yourself:The Napoleonic Code was exported to which of the following regions?
Explanation
The Correct Option is C
The Napoleonic Code, also known as the Civil Code of the French, was a fundamental change in the French legal system established by Napoleon Bonaparte during the French Revolution. It was implemented in regions under his control. Below are the details:
- Not Exported to England: The Napoleonic Code was not exported to England. England had its own legal system, known as common law, which is significantly different from the civil law system used by the French. England was also a major opponent of Napoleon during his time in power, making it unlikely that they would adopt his legal code.
- Not Exported to Spain: While Spain was invaded by Napoleon and he installed his brother Joseph as king, the Napoleonic Code was not fully implemented in Spain. Spain had its own legal traditions and systems, which remained in place even during the French occupation.
- Exported to Regions under French Control: The Napoleonic Code was indeed exported to regions under French control. This included many areas of Europe, such as the Netherlands, parts of Italy, and parts of Germany, among others. The Code formed the basis of the legal system in these areas, replacing existing laws and legal structures.
- Exported to Poland: The Napoleonic Code was also implemented in the Duchy of Warsaw, a French client state that is now part of modern Poland. However, it should be noted that this was a region under French control, so this falls under the previous point. After the fall of Napoleon, the Code was not universally maintained in Poland
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