Current S & T Terminology- 1 | Science & Technology for UPSC CSE PDF Download

Scientific Concepts and Historical Milestones

Allotropy

• Allotropy is the property of certain elements to exist in different structural forms. For instance, carbon can be found as diamond or graphite, while oxygen can exist as oxygen gas (O₂) or ozone (O₃). Other elements that exhibit allotropy include sulfur and tin.

Alloy

• An alloy is a combination of two or more metals or non-metals blended to create a material with specific properties. Examples of alloys include steel (iron and carbon), brass (copper and zinc), and bronze (copper and tin).

Aminocentesis

• Aminocentesis is a prenatal diagnostic procedure used to detect genetic abnormalities in a developing fetus. This test is typically performed around the 16th week of pregnancy when there is an adequate amount of amniotic fluid surrounding the fetus.
• During aminocentesis, a thin needle is inserted through the mother’s abdomen to collect a sample of amniotic fluid, which contains cells shed by the fetus. These cells are then analyzed for genetic disorders such as Down syndrome, cystic fibrosis, and other inherited conditions.
• In addition to identifying genetic defects, aminocentesis can also determine the sex of the baby, as the amniotic fluid contains fetal DNA that reveals this information.

Antibiotics

• Antibiotics are substances produced by certain fungi that inhibit the growth of other organisms, primarily bacteria. The first natural antibiotic discovered was penicillin, followed by others such as streptomycin and chloromycin. Some antibiotics are also manufactured synthetically in laboratories.

Antibodies

• Antibodies are specialized proteins produced by the immune system of mammals to defend against foreign invaders such as bacteria, viruses, and toxins. These proteins recognize and bind to specific antigens, marking them for destruction by other immune cells.

Antigen

• An antigen is any substance that triggers an immune response in the body, leading to the production of specific antibodies. Antigens can be parts of pathogens, such as proteins on the surface of bacteria or viruses, or they can be non-infectious substances like pollen or pet dander that cause allergic reactions.

Antiseptic

• An antiseptic is a chemical agent applied to living tissues, such as skin, to kill or inhibit the growth of microorganisms. Antiseptics are used to prevent infections during surgical procedures, wound care, and other medical interventions. Examples of antiseptics include ethyl alcohol and iodine solutions.

Aqua Regia

• Aqua regia is a highly corrosive mixture of one part concentrated nitric acid and three parts hydrochloric acid. This powerful solvent is capable of dissolving all metals, including gold, which is resistant to most other acids. Aqua regia is commonly used in laboratories for metal analysis and recovery.

Important Dates and Events in Indian Defence History

• 27-10-1947: Indian troops were sent to Kashmir, and the accession of Kashmir to India was officially announced.
• 15-1-1949: Lt. Gen. K.M. Cariappa became India's first Chief of Army Staff.
• October 1949: The Territorial Army was raised.
• September 1955: The title of Commander-in-Chief was abolished, and service chiefs were renamed.
• 19-12-1961: Indian forces took full control of Goa, Daman, and Diu.
• 20-10-1962: China launched a major attack in NEFA and Ladakh.
• 26-10-1962: The President promulgated the Defence of India ordinance.
• 17-12-1962: Proposals from the Colombo Conference were finalized.
• 14-8-1963: NCC training was made compulsory.
• 11-1-1963: China rejected the Colombo proposals.
• 9-4-1965: Pakistan aggresed on the Kuchch-Sind Border.
• 5-8-1965: Pakistan invaded Kashmir.
• 23-9-1965:. ceasefire agreement was reached between India and Pakistan.
• 10-1-1966: The Tashkent declaration was signed.
• 3-12-1971: An emergency was declared following Pakistan's declaration of war.
• 2-7-1972: The Shimla Agreement was signed between India and Pakistan.
• 18-5-1974: India conducted a successful underground nuclear test at Pokhran.
• 21-5-1989: The Agni missile was successfully launched at Chandipur, Orissa.
• 5-6-1989: The Trishul missile was test-fired successfully.
• 24-6-1990: The first successful flight of the Nag anti-tank missile took place.
• 14-8-1990: The Akash missile was successfully test-launched.
• 29-5-1992: The second successful test of the Agni missile was conducted.
• 1-3-1993: India’s main battle tank, the Arjun, was launched.

Artificial Intelligence

• Artificial intelligence involves creating computer systems or software that can perform tasks typically requiring human intelligence. This includes processes like learning, reasoning, problem-solving, understanding natural language, and perception. AI aims to develop machines that can mimic cognitive functions, making them capable of performing complex tasks autonomously or assisting humans in various activities.

Artificial Intelligence

Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to technology that allows machines to mimic human thinking in areas like reasoning and problem-solving. AI includes machines capable of recognizing and responding to sounds and voices, as well as learning from their mistakes without human intervention. These advanced machines are sometimes called Ultra Intelligent Machines (UIM), although such machines do not currently exist.

Asteroids

Asteroids are small, rock-like objects that orbit the sun, found between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, approximately 450 million kilometers from the sun. The largest object in the asteroid belt is Ceres, classified as a dwarf planet with a diameter of about 1000 km. In contrast, the smallest asteroids can be as tiny as one kilometer across.

Atomic Clock

An atomic clock is a highly precise timekeeping device that measures time using the vibrations of atoms or molecules, rather than relying on quartz crystals or mechanical springs like traditional watches. Commonly used atoms include rubidium, caesium, hydrogen, or ammonia molecules. Atomic clocks are incredibly accurate, losing or gaining no more than a second over 200,000 years, making them ideal for use in laboratories and observatories.

Aurora

Aurora refers to the stunning and colorful lights created in the Earth's upper atmosphere, primarily visible in polar regions during winter. The aurora borealis, or northern lights, can be observed in the Arctic region, while the aurora australis, or southern lights, is seen in the Antarctic or southern latitudes.

AWACS

AWACS, which stands for Airborne Warning and Control System, is an electronic system used to detect enemy aircraft, both low-flying and high-flying, using radar mounted on a surveillance aircraft.

Environmental Milestones

• 1951: The National Forest Policy of 1894 was replaced by Van Mahotsava, a national tree planting festival.
• 1952: The Indian Wildlife Board was constituted.
• 1953: The Central Soil Conservation Board was established.
• 1962: The Animal Welfare Board of India was set up.
• 1962: The Central Forest Commission was formed to study the implementation of the National Forest Policy by State Governments and Union Territories.
• 1966: The Indian Forest Service was constituted.
• 1973: Project Tiger was initiated.
• 1980:. separate Department of Environment was created.
• 1981: The Forest Survey of India (FSI) was set up.
• 1983: The National Wildlife Action Plan was adopted.
• 1985: The Department of Environment and Forest was created, and the Central Ganga Authority was established.
• 1987: The Indira Gandhi Paryavaran Puraskar was instituted.

Bakelite

Bakelite is a type of plastic that was among the first synthetic resins produced from phenol and formaldehyde. It is known for its heat resistance and durability, making it suitable for various applications. Bakelite was commonly used in electrical insulators, radio and telephone casings, and household items due to its strong and resilient properties.

Bakelite and Biological Concepts

Bakelite is a kind of plastic that hardens permanently when set and cannot be melted again by heating. It is known for its resistance to chemicals, electricity, and heat, which makes it suitable for use as an insulator in electrical fittings and for making handles of cooking utensils.

Biodiversity

Biodiversity refers to the wide range and differences among all living organisms on Earth, including plants, animals, and microbes. It is essential because humans depend on other species for the survival of the biosphere and for basic needs, particularly food. Concerns about biodiversity are growing due to the increasing number of species that are becoming extinct or are at risk of extinction.

• Estimated Number of Species: There could be between 5 to 30 million species on Earth, many of which have not yet been discovered.
• Extinction Rates: Current estimates indicate that approximately 10,000 to 20,000 species go extinct each year.
• Biodiversity Hotspots: The warm tropical regions are known to have the richest biodiversity.

Conserving biodiversity is crucial for humans because plants and animals provide various known and unknown services, such as potential cures for diseases and genetic material that can improve food crop yields.

Biological Clock

The biological clock refers to the internal timekeeping system found in living organisms that regulates various activities in response to regular changes in their environment, such as the day-night cycle. Key points about the biological clock include:

• Circadian Rhythm: The cycle of sleep, wakefulness, and other bodily functions repeats approximately every 24 hours, known as the circadian rhythm.
• Environmental Link: This clock is connected to environmental cycles like day and night, lunar months, and seasonal changes.
• Biological Rhythms: Humans experience biological rhythms that can be daily, weekly, monthly, or yearly.
• Hormonal Variations: The levels of hormones and other chemicals in the blood fluctuate during these periods.

Bioluminescence

Bioluminescence is the phenomenon where certain living organisms, such as fireflies, deep-sea fish, specific worms, and some algae, emit light without generating heat. This light is produced through a chemical reaction similar to respiration. The key compound involved in bioluminescence is luciferin, which is oxidized with the assistance of an enzyme called luciferase.

Biopsy

A biopsy is a medical procedure used for diagnosis that involves taking small samples of tissue from affected areas, usually from abnormal growths or the linings of organs, to examine them under a microscope. Here are some important points about the biopsy process:

• Tissue Collection:. hollow needle is commonly used to collect tissue samples from organs such as the liver or kidney.
• Examination and Diagnosis: The collected tissue samples are then analyzed to determine whether the tissue is benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous).

Biotechnology in Food Production

Biotechnology involves using biological processes to develop materials for medicine and industry. This approach has now been applied to food processing as well. The first product to be commercially developed using biotechnology was tomato puree. A team of biotechnologists created a special type of tomato that ripens slowly, and this product became the first food item to receive approval for use in both the UK and the US.

Researchers in the UK also pioneered the production of a low-calorie beer using gene technology. This beer contains slightly more alcohol than traditional beer due to the use of genetically modified (GM) brewer's yeast. This modified yeast has an additional gene that enables it to break down large sugar molecules, releasing glucose that is then fermented into alcohol.

The first GM food product approved anywhere in the world was a specific type of baker's yeast, which received approval for use in the UK in 1990. This yeast is capable of generating carbon dioxide more quickly than regular baker's yeast.

Black Hole

A black hole is a fascinating and mysterious object in space with an incredibly strong gravitational pull, so powerful that nothing can escape from it, not even light. Black holes are formed when a star runs out of its nuclear fuel and collapses under its own gravity. All stars go through a life cycle: they are born, they age, and eventually, they die.

Key Events in the Energy Sector

• 1960: The Central Power Research Institute (CPRI) was established.
• 1969: The Rural Electrification Corporation (REC) was set up.
• 1975: The Central Electricity Authority (CEA) was established.
• — The National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC) Limited was set up.
• — The National Hydro-electric Power Corporation (NHPC) Limited was incorporated under the Companies Act 1956.
• 1976: The North Eastern Electric Power Corporation (NEEPCO) Limited was constituted.
• 1980: The National Power Training Institute (NPTI) was set up.
• 1983-84: Meritorious Productivity and Incentive Awards were introduced.
• 1985: The Power Finance Corporation (PFC) Limited was incorporated on 10 July.
• 1988: The Tehri Hydro Development Corporation was incorporated on 12 July.
• 1989: The Powergrid Corporation of India was established on 23 October.
• — The Energy Management Centre was set up.
• 1992: The Ministry of Power began operating independently on 2 July.
• 1997: The Accelerated Generation and Supply Programme was launched in September.
• 1998: The Electricity Regulatory Commission Ordinance was enacted on 25 April.
• — The Central Electricity Regulatory Commission (CERC) was constituted on 25 July.

Coal

• 1973: The Coal Mines Authority Limited was established.
• 1985: Northern Coalfields Limited and South Eastern Coalfields Limited were formed in November.
• 1998: The first meeting of the Indo-Polish working group on coal was held in Poland on 14 October.

Non-Conventional Energy Sources

• 1970s: Renewable energy sources were recognised in India in the early 1970s.
• 1981-82: The Commission for Additional Sources of Energy (CASE) was established.
• — Agni was successfully test-fired for the second time.
• 1984-85: The National Programme on Improved Chulhas was launched.
• 1987: The Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency was established.
• 1992: The Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources was created.
• 1994: The development of High Rate Biomethamation Processes was approved.
• 1995: The National Programme on energy recovery from urban, municipal, and industrial wastes was launched.

Oil And Natural Gas

• 1965: Madras Refineries Limited (MRL) was formed on 30 December.
• 1975: The Oil Industry Development Board (OIDB) was established in January.
• 1976: Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited (BPCL) was founded.
• 1984: Gas Authority of India Limited (GAIL) was formed.
• 1985: Numaligarh Refinery Limited (NRL) was set up in Golaghat, Assam, in August.
• 1993: The Directorate General of Hydrocarbons (DGH) was established.

Timeline of Major Industrial Developments in India

• 1907. The Tata Iron and Steel Works, India's first modern steel plant, was founded by J.N. Tata in Jamshedpur.
• 1947. The National Newsprint and Paper Mills Limited began as a private enterprise in Nepanagar, Madhya Pradesh, and was later taken over by the Madhya Pradesh Government in 1948.
• 1947. The Indian Standards Institute (ISI) was established to set standards for various products and services.
• 1948. The first Industrial Policy Resolution was passed by Parliament in April, outlining the government’s approach to industrial development.
• 1948. The Industrial Finance Corporation of India was set up in July to provide financial assistance for industrial projects.
• 1952. The Tariff Commission was appointed by the Government of India in January to advise on tariff matters.
• 1952. The All-India Handicrafts Board was established in November to promote and develop handicrafts.
• 1952. The All-India Khadi and Village Industries Board was formed in February to promote khadi and village industries.
• 1954. The National Industrial Development Corporation was established to promote and develop industrial projects.
• 1955. The Industrial Credit and Investment Corporation of India (ICICI) was founded in January to provide credit and investment support.
• 1955. The National Small Industries Corporation was set up in February to promote and develop small-scale industries.
• 1956. The National Coal Development Corporation Limited was established to develop coal resources.
• 1956-1961. Three integrated iron and steel plants were set up in the public sector at Rourkela, Bhilai, and Durgapur.
• 1958. The National Mineral Development Corporation Limited was established in November to develop mineral resources.
• 1961. Indian Drugs and Pharmaceuticals Limited was incorporated to manufacture pharmaceuticals and drugs.
• 1964. The Unit Trust of India (UTI) Act, 1963, came into effect in February to regulate unit trusts.
• 1964. The Industrial Development Bank of India (IDBI) was established in July to provide financial support for industrial development.
• 1964. Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited (BHEL) was incorporated in November to manufacture heavy electrical equipment.
• 1970. The Monopoly and Restrictive Trade Practices (MRTP) Commission was appointed to regulate monopolistic practices.
• 1970. The Bureau of Industrial Costs and Prices was established to monitor industrial costs and prices.
• 1978. The Centrally-sponsored District Industries Centres (DICs) Programme was launched to promote small-scale industries.
• 1980. The Central Pulp and Paper Research Institute was established to conduct research in pulp and paper technology.
• 1991. The New Industrial Policy (NIP) was announced in Parliament in July to liberalize and promote industrial development.
• 1996. The Disinvestment Commission was set up in August to advise on disinvestment in public sector enterprises.
• 1996. The Foreign Investment Promotion Board was reconstituted to promote foreign investment.
• 1997. The Tariff Commission was constituted in September to advise on tariff matters.
• 1998. Industrial licensing was abolished for all items except six industries.
• 1998. The MRTP Act was amended to enhance its effectiveness.

Bypass Surgery

Bypass surgery is a procedure used to treat blocked coronary arteries that impact the heart's function. Coronary arteries are crucial as they supply blood to the heart muscles. When these arteries become narrowed or completely blocked due to a buildup of fatty substances, blood flow to a part of the heart is reduced or halted. This condition can lead to severe chest pain, and in some cases, the patient may even faint. To address this issue, surgeons create an alternative pathway for blood flow by bypassing the obstructed artery using a segment of vein taken from the patient's leg.

Cable Television

Cable television is a method of delivering both pictures and sound to a television set through cables, rather than relying on high-frequency radio waves. Television signals are broadcasted by stations using high-frequency waves, which can only be properly received if the receiving antenna is in direct line of sight with the transmitter. In remote areas, these TV signals can be weak or obstructed by tall buildings, making it challenging to receive clear signals. Cable TV systems address this problem by enabling multiple TV sets to receive signals simultaneously from a single antenna positioned in an optimal location. The signals from the antenna are amplified and transmitted through a network of cables. Additionally, large dish antennas can capture signals from satellites, which are then distributed via cable. With cable TV, each television receives sufficiently strong signals to display a clear image.

CAD and CAM

CAD refers to Computer Aided Design, while CAM stands for Computer Aided Manufacture. Both involve the use of computers for creating designs or assisting in the production of goods. CAD software is commonly employed for designing printed circuit boards and computer chips. On the other hand, CAM software aids in the manufacturing process using computer-controlled machines such as lathes, drills, welding machines, or robotic production lines. This technology enables factories to produce a wide range of precise products quickly and efficiently.

CAT Scan

A CAT scan, also known as Computerized Axial Tomography scan or CT scan, is a diagnostic technique used to capture X-ray images of thin slices of the body without the need for surgical intervention. This method is particularly effective for examining soft tissues, such as the brain, or large organs like the liver, which are not easily visible using standard X-ray methods.

How a CAT Scan Works

• During a CAT scan, the specific area of the body being investigated is positioned inside a circular apparatus.
• This apparatus consists of an X-ray machine on one side and a detector on the opposite side.
• The X-ray beam emitted by the machine passes through the body and is captured by the detector.
• The detector is linked to a computer that processes the captured data and converts it into a flat image.

Catalytic Converter

A catalytic converter is an essential component found in the exhaust systems of petrol cars. Its primary function is to transform harmful emissions into less harmful substances. When petrol cars run on unleaded fuel, the exhaust fumes produced contain dangerous gases such as carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and hydrocarbons like benzene. These substances are harmful to human health when inhaled.

The catalytic converter contains a catalyst made from noble metals like platinum, palladium, and rhodium. As the exhaust gases pass through the converter, the catalyst plays a crucial role in oxidizing carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons while reducing nitrogen oxides into harmless substances like carbon dioxide, water, and nitrogen.

However, catalytic converters cannot be used in cars that run on leaded petrol. This is because the noble metals in the catalyst are sensitive to lead, which renders them inactive as lead builds up on these metals and disrupts their functionality.

Cholesterol

Cholesterol is a waxy substance that is both found and produced in all animal tissues and cells, although the amounts vary. It plays a crucial role in maintaining the structure of biological membranes, which is essential for proper cell function. Additionally, cholesterol serves as a precursor for important substances such as bile salts, steroid hormones, and vitamin A.

However, having too much cholesterol in the body can be detrimental to health. It is a major contributor to the narrowing of arteries, a condition that can lead to heart attacks. At room temperature, pure cholesterol is solid and does not dissolve in water. An average adult human has about 60 grams of cholesterol, with approximately one gram used each day. The liver is responsible for replacing the lost cholesterol.

Cholesterol, whether obtained from food or produced by the liver, is transported in the bloodstream. It travels as tiny particles attached to plasma proteins, known as lipoproteins. There are different types of lipoproteins, but two key ones are high-density lipoproteins (HDL) and low-density lipoprotein (LDL). HDL contains more protein than fat and is often referred to as "good cholesterol" because it collects unused cholesterol from various parts of the body and returns it to the liver for reprocessing or excretion. On the other hand, LDL has more fat than protein and is known as "bad cholesterol" because it carries cholesterol through the bloodstream to where it is needed for metabolism and cell building.

Health Implications

Research indicates a strong association between coronary heart disease and low levels of HDL, as well as high levels of LDL and total cholesterol. While moderate levels of LDL are important for health, many individuals have elevated LDL levels, which can lead to the deposition of cholesterol on artery walls, resulting in atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis is characterized by the thickening of artery walls due to the buildup of cholesterol and other substances, leading to increased blood pressure and a higher risk of heart attacks and strokes. Elevated levels of LDL in the blood can also cause abnormal increases in cholesterol or another blood fat called triglycerides.

Health and Technology Insights

HDL (High-Density Lipoprotein) in your blood is linked to a lower risk of heart attacks. This is likely because HDL helps prevent cholesterol from accumulating on the walls of your arteries. In contrast, LDL (Low-Density Lipoprotein) is more susceptible to oxidation in the bloodstream, which can lead to the development of plaques or atheromas that obstruct arteries.

Comet

A comet is an astronomical object composed of ice and dust. As it approaches the sun, the heat causes the ice to vaporize, resulting in a long tail. Comets usually have very elongated and stretched orbits. The most famous comet is Halley's Comet, which appears approximately every 76 years, with its last sighting in 1985-86. Another well-known comet is Hale-Bopp.

Compact Disc

A Compact Disc (CD) is a technology used for recording or storing digital audio or video using a laser on a disc made of aluminium. Data is read and written in the form of pits and lands, with a laser beam scanning the rotating disc, similar to the operation of a phonograph. Music from a studio CD is clear and free from distortion or noise, making it a suitable replacement for phonograph records. CDs can also store and record text, images, and sound all on a single disc. They have a large storage capacity—sufficient to hold the entire text and images of a 30-volume Encyclopaedia Britannica on a single disc. CDs are versatile and widely used in entertainment, book publishing, and various other fields that utilise computer systems.