A Critical Review Of Mmi Projects (1947‐2010), Mechanics of Tillage and Traction | Mechanics of Tillage and Traction Notes- Agricultural Engg - Agricultural Engineering PDF Download

Introduction

The older irrigation works prior to 19^th century were mainly confined to construction of ponds to collect excess rainfall, to direct flood flows through inundation channels or canals and simple dug wells, where favourable ground water conditions existed. In the past, several kings took upon themselves the responsibility to create reliable water supply systems in their respective domains. The first Irrigation Commission was appointed in 1901 to report on irrigation as a ‘means of protection against famine in India’. Though irrigation development in British period took twists and turns in terms of thrust and direction, it had set the tone for the emergence of a dynamic and vibrant irrigation sector in the country. It is, therefore, said that harnessing of waters of India's rivers for irrigation purposes would appear as one of the most positive ways in which the colonial regime contributed to Indian welfare. The growth of irrigation are presented in the following units.

3.1 Water Resources Development – Historical Prospective

Grand Anicut in the Cauvery river delta was one of the earliest canal systems built as far back as the 2nd Century A.D.Historical evidence points out that Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1220‐25) was one of the first rulers who took interest in digging canals at the state’s expense. Similarly, Firoz Tughlaq (1351‐86), who was inspired by the Central Asian experience, built a number of canals. The Vijayanagar Empire expanded primarily because of large impetus provided to irrigation works in the 15th century in southern India.

In the nineteenth century, British rule in India brought about a significant change in water resource development. Some large and extensive works like Upper Ganga Canal, the Upper Bari Doab Canal and the Krishna and Godavari Delta Systems were taken up, which were all river diversion schemes of fairly large size. In 1867, Government adopted the proactive of accepting works which promised a minimum net return. Thereafter, a large number of projects were taken up such as the Sirhind Canal, the Lower Ganga canal, the Agra Canal, the Mutha Canal, Periyar Dam, the Lower Swat Canal, the Lower Soliag Canal, the Lower Chenab and the Sidhnai Canals. Owing to frequent droughts and famines during the second half of the 19th century, irrigation development received special attention. Some of the protective works constructed during the period were the Betwa Canal, the Nira Left Bank Canal, the Gokak Canal, the Mahaswad Tank and the Rushikulya Canal. The total irrigated area towards the end of the 19th century, both by public and private works, was around 13.2 Mha of which 56 percent constituted the public works. Source wise, canals irrigated 45 percent, wells 35 percent, tanks 15 percent and other sources five percent of the area.

 3.2 Recommendations of Irrigation Commissions

The first Irrigation Commission was appointed in 1901 to report on irrigation as a ‘means of protection against famine in India’. Prior to setting up of this commission, a few Famine Commissions had been set up and those Commissions had also recommended the development of irrigation works to contain the adverse impact of frequent famines. However, it was only after appointment of the First Irrigation Commission that a number of ambitious construction programmes were taken up to fight famine. The Commission in its Report recommended financial yardsticks for taking up famine relief and protective works. It also made a thorough review of irrigation development in the provinces and recommended proposals for new schemes. The more important public works recommended by the Commission included Chankapur storage on river Girna, Maladevi storage on river Pravara, storage works on the rivers Ujjani and Ghataprabha, improvement of Kurnool‐Cuddapah Canal, storage works on rivers Cauvery and Krishna, the Ken Canal, the diversion of Sarada waters into the Ganga above the Narora weir and location of suitable storage sites on the rivers Sabarmati, Mahi and Narmada. That Commission inter‐alia suggested the need for conjunctive use of surface and ground water, preparation of complementary programmes covering engineering works, watershed management and ayacut development and also recommended constitution of seven River Basin Commissions for the whole country to oversee all water resources development. Keeping in view the social urges and the demand for the removal of regional and social disparities, the Commission recommended construction of minor works in a time bound framework in under‐developed area. In order that irrigation in India should pay for itself, the Commission recommended that the water rates should be raised to a level sufficient to cover the cost of maintaining and running the works and a reasonable rate of interest on investment. It also advocated the use of computers for the collation of irrigation and agriculture statistics in order to provide the latest information to irrigation planners. The Irrigation Commission supported the adoption of B: C Ration criteria in sanctioning projects as practiced then. However, it also recommended that the practice of accepting projects with B:C ratio more than 1.5 be relaxed in the case of drought areas with lower limit of 1.0. The Commission also recommended the setting up of a High Level Authority, “The National Water Resources Council”, to take policy decisions for the conservation, utilization and inter basin transfers of water; to lay down priorities for the use of water; to keep a continuous watch on the working of the River Basin Commissions and problems of inter‐state rivers and to ensure that the formulation and execution of irrigation projects were in accordance with the highest national interest. The Commission further highlighted the importance of soil conservation in protecting the watershed and, therefore, recommended adoption of such measures as afforestation, pasture development, protection of river fringes, road sides and the shore lines of the reservoir and the control of forest fires. Similarly, the concept of participatory irrigation management by constituting water users’ associations was another important recommendation for economical and efficient use of water resources. The Commission also suggested that a special administrative agency for the coordinated and expeditious development of command area under the medium and major projects was necessary and each project should have a separate ayacut development agency. These recommendations were taken into consideration from time to time during the subsequent Plan Periods.

3.3 Irrigation in Early Twentieth Century

The emphasis shifted from productive to protective irrigation systems. By 1901, area irrigated by protective works was only a little over 0.12 million hectares, while the gross area irrigated from public works was about 7.5 million hectares (Mha), of which 3 Mha was from minor works like tanks and inundation canals. Farmer-managed irrigation systems (FMIS) also contri­buted their might to increase Irrigation potential, as area irrigated by private works was 5.7 Mha of which 70 per cent was by wells and the remaining from tanks, streams and channels.

Though private works contributed and continue to contribute their might for the expansion of irrigation, they remained outside the ambit of irrigation policy per se, except for a limited purpose of extending institutional financial support where initiative comes from individuals or communities. Therefore, not much attention is paid for its detailed analysis here,

A shift in the thrust of irrigation development from productive to protective is more significant. For, the British government was particular about the returns on investment and concentrated only on prime areas. Environmental compulsions have, however, forced to relax the productive norms applied for irrigation systems There was a spurt in protective irrigation works in the first two decades of this century, The recognition of its importance is revealed by a six-fold increase in outlay on protective works: the outlay has increased from Rs 2 crores in 1903 to about Rs 12 crores in 1921 as against a two-told increase in the overall outlay on irrigation—protective and productive together—from Rs 40 crores in 1901 to Rs 79 crores in 1920-21. At the end of this period, the area irrigated was 10.4 Mha by public works and 8.9 Mha by private works in British India and 3.3 Mha in the former princely States with a total of 22.6 Mha.

The Bengal famine (1943) gave a spun to further expansion of protective rather than productive irrigation works to increase food production. The realization seemed to have come soon that public systems alone cannot meet shortages of food. The stress was, therefore, on private irrigation works also. The Famine Enquiry Commission (1944) in particular emphasized the need for concentrating on private works. They perhaps thought that it was the best strategy to harness locally available water resources by using the local skills and materials, including capita!. In a way this was a meaningful approach to tap the surplus resources and plough back the same for developmental processes. By 1945, the area irrigated from private sources in undivided India, excluding princely states, was 10 Mha of which 4.4 Mha was by wells. This shows that groundwater exploitation was as important as surface irrigation. However, it was the monopoly of private individuals. The Table 3.1 gives the status of irrigation development in British period.

TABLE 3.1 AREA IRRIGATED IN UNDIVIDED INDIA (Net area irrigated in million hectares)

Note: Figures in parentheses are percentages. 

Two distinct trends in the progress of irrigation are observed from the data presented above. In the first two decades (1900-20) area irrigated by private sources has shown a perceptible increase (56.1 per cent) when compared with public sector (36.8 per cent); a reverse trend is observed in the subsequent two decades (1920-45). Since British government initially was not favourably disposed to its expansionist role into less productive irrigation systems, increase in area irrigated under public works was understandably slow. When the state expansionism became inevitable to combat natural disasters like famines and droughts by extending irrigation to less endowed regions, the area under public works had naturally increased faster than under private works. While appreciating the inevita­bility of state expansionist role in irrigation development, the slow pace of progress witnessed under private works was not welcomed. That could be the reason why the Famine Enquiry Commission (1944), as pointed already, emphasized the need for encouraging private irrigation works to supplement the government works,

Between 1900 and 1945 area irrigated by public works had increased by 77.6 per cent as against 75.4 per cent in private sector; it indicates that the colonial rule not only expanded state intervention but also encouraged irrigation under private sector. However, the performance of private sector, in terms of area irrigated, between 1921 and 1945 was not very encouraging. The area irrigated by private sources increased by only 12.4 per cent between 1921 and 1945 as against 29.8 per cent under public sector. Though irrigation development in British period took twists and turns in terms of thrust and direction, it had set the tone for the emergence of a dynamic and vibrant irrigation sector in the country. It is, therefore, said that harnessing of waters of India's rivers for irrigation purposes would appear as one of the most positive ways in which the colonial regime contributed to Indian welfare.

The partition of the country in 1947 was yet another curtain raiser as far as irrigation chapter in Indian economic develop­ment is concerned. Irrigation profile of Indian Union had changed. A major portion of the irrigation potential created in undivided India during the pre-independence period went to Pakistan. At the time of the partition in 1947, the net sown area in the country, including the princely states, was 116.8 Mha. Of this 28.2 Mha or 24 per cent was irrigated. On partition, 18.3 Mha of net sown area, of which 8.8 Mha or nearly half was irrigated land, went to Pakistan. Of the balance left with India, only 19.4 Mha or about one-fifth was irrigated. While India was left with 80 per cent of the pro-partition population, it got only 69 per cent of the total irrigated area. This had naturally led to exploring the possibilities of constructing irrigation works in the regions endowed with less natural resources, which in normal course tend to affect benefit-cost ratios.

3.4 Development of Irrigation under the Plans

In the First Five Year Plan (1951‐56), the country launched a major irrigation programme. A number of Multipurpose and Major Projects were taken up, such as Bhakra Nangal, Nagarjunasagar, Kosi, Chambal, Hirakud, Kakrapar and Tungabhadra. Simultaneously, minor irrigation schemes including ground water were given emphasis under the Agricultural Sector, along with financial assistance from the Centre. During the periods of Second Five year Plan (1956‐61), third Five year Plan (1961‐66) and the Three Annual Plans (1966‐69), irrigation programmes were being implemented with new starts. During the Fourth Five Year Plan (1969‐74), the emphasis was shifted to the completion of ongoing projects, integrated use of surface and ground water, adoption of efficient management techniques and modernization of existing schemes. The new starts, however, continued. During the fifth Plan (1974‐78), Command Area Development Programme was launched as a Centrally Sponsored Scheme with the objective of reducing the lag between potential created and optimum utilization of available land and water. The programme was conceived as a means of co‐ordinating all related activities to meet with these objective under one umbrella. Initially, 60 Major and Medium projects were covered with a CCA of 15 Mha.

During the Annual Plans of 1978‐80 and the Sixth five Year Plan (1980‐85), ‘new starts’ continued and at the end of Seventh Plan, there were as many as 182 major and 312 medium ongoing projects requiring an estimated amount of Rs. 39,044 crore at the 1990‐91 price level for their completion. ‘New starts’ were, therefore, restricted considerably and greater emphasis was laid on completion of projects, which were in the advance stages of completion (those with an expenditure of 75 percent or more). This was continued during 1990‐91 & 1991‐92 Annual Plans, VIII Plan (1992‐97) and IX Plan (1997‐2002).

For speedy completion of ongoing projects in advance stage of construction Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme (AIBP) was launched in 1996‐1997. During VIII Plan period irrigation potential of 2.22 mha was created under major and medium sector at an annual rate of 0.44 mha per annum. During IX Plan period this increased to 4.12 mha out of which 1.65 mha (nearly 40%) was through AIBP. Renovation, Modernization and Rehabilitation of old irrigation schemes gained momentum. User’s participation in major and medium irrigation schemes received greater attention. Repairs and improvement to the minor irrigation projects, as a part of integrated micro‐development, also received encouragement. Similarly, sprinkler and drip irrigation programmes and the conjunctive use of surface and ground water gained momentum.

 3.5 Development and Utilization of Irrigation Potential

As per the reassessment of the Committee constituted by MoWR in May 1997, the currently accepted figures of Ultimate Irrigation Potential (UIP) under the major and medium projects sector is 58.47 MHa and Potential Created (PC) and utilized up to X Plan are 41.64 Mha and 33.74 respectively. The assessment of Ultimate Irrigation Potential needs to be periodically reviewed to account for revision in scope, technological advancement, inter basin transfer of water, induced recharging of ground water, etc. The created irrigation potential in respect of major and medium projects increased from 9.72 mha in preplan period to 46.24 mha (tentative) including 4.60 MHa anticipated to be created in XI plan. In the corresponding period the potential utilization has been from 9.70 mha period during pre plan period to 35.10 mha (including 1.36 Mha anticipated during XI plan). The pattern of irrigation potential creation and its corresponding utilization during the plan periods is shown in table 3.2. Basin-wise Live Storage Capacities under Major & Medium Irrigation Projects in India are in table 3.3

Table 3.3   Basin-wise Live Storage Capacities under Major & Medium Irrigation Projects in India

    Table3.4   Live Storage Capacities under Major & Medium Irrigation Projects by State

Table 3.5  Water Use Efficiency of Completed Major/Medium Irrigation Projects based on Field Measurements of Losses