The Rajputs | History for UPSC CSE PDF Download

The North Indian Kingdoms - The Rajputs

The Medieval Indian history period is conventionally placed between the 8th and the 18th century A.D. Ancient Indian history is considered to have come to an end with the rule of Harsha and Pulakesin II. The phases of the medieval period are commonly divided as follows.

Periodisation

• Early medieval period: 8th-12th century A.D.
• Later medieval period: 12th-18th century A.D.

About the Rajputs

• Identity and origin theories: Several traditional and scholarly theories explain Rajput origins. According to traditional genealogies, many Rajput clans trace descent to Surya-vamsa (the solar lineage associated with Lord Rama), Chandra-vamsa (the lunar lineage associated with Lord Krishna), or to the Agnikula or fire-origin theory (heroes who sprang from a sacrificial fire). These are origin theories preserved in medieval genealogies and literature.
• Period: Rajputs came to prominence in the early medieval period and their political influence continued into later centuries.
• Social status: Rajputs were drawn from Kshatriya or warrior families according to contemporary and later accounts.
• Debate on foreign origin: Some sources or interpretations suggest foreign elements entered Rajput lineages; other accounts stress indigenous origins. Multiple lines of evidence and differing opinions exist and are discussed in historiography.

Major Rajput Clans and Dynasties

• Pratiharas (also called Gurjaras)
• Palas of Bengal
• Chauhans of Ajmer and Delhi
• Rathors of Kanauj
• Guhilas / Sisodiyas of Mewar
• Chandellas of Bundelkhand
• Paramaras of Malwa
• Senas of Bengal
• Solankis of Gujarat
• Overall, medieval tradition lists nearly 36 Rajput clans, of which the above were among the most prominent.

Pratiharas (8th-11th century A.D.)

• Alternate name: Often called Gurjara-Pratiharas.
• Territory and period: They were powerful in northern and western India between the 8th and 11th centuries A.D.
• Role in defence: The Pratiharas are often described as providing a major line of defence against incursions from the north-west, resisting Muslim advance from the days of Junaid of Sind (725 A.D.) through to Mahmud of Ghazni.

Rulers of the Pratiharas

• Nagabhata I (725-740 A.D.): Recognised as a founder figure of the Pratihara dynasty; Kanauj was an important centre under later Pratiharas.
• Vatsaraja and Nagabhata II: These rulers played vital roles in consolidating and expanding Pratihara authority.
• Mihirabhoja (Mihira Bhoja): Considered the most powerful Pratihara king; under him the empire extended from Kashmir to the Narmada and from Kathiawar to Bihar.
• Mahendrapala (885-908 A.D.): Son of Mihirabhoja; extended control over Magadha and northern Bengal.
• Decline: Rajyapala is recorded as the last Pratihara king; the empire contracted to Kanauj. The Pratihara power began to decline after repeated attacks including those by Mahmud of Ghazni (attack recorded in 1018 A.D.). After decline, many of their feudatories such as the Palas, Tomars, Chauhans, Rathors, Chandellas, Guhilas and Paramaras became independent rulers.

Pala Dynasty (Eastern India)

• Gopala (765-769 A.D.): Founder of the Pala dynasty; he restored order in Bengal and established Pala rule over parts of northern and eastern India, including Magadha.
• Dharmapala (769-815 A.D.): Son and successor of Gopala; he brought Bengal, Bihar and at times Kanauj under Pala influence; he was a staunch Buddhist and patron of learning, founding Vikramashila University and supporting Nalanda.
• Devapala (815-855 A.D.): Son of Dharmapala; he maintained Pala territories and led campaigns reaching Assam and Orissa.
• Mahipala (998-1038 A.D.): Under his reign the Palas regained strength; the dynasty declined after his death.
• Govinda Pala: Recorded as one of the later rulers; succession and lineage details become uncertain toward the end of the dynasty.

Tripartite Struggle for Kanauj

• Contesting powers: The struggle for supremacy over Kanauj and the Gangetic plain involved the Pratiharas of Central India, the Palas of Bengal and the Rashtrakutas of the Deccan.
• Duration and impact: This Tripartite Struggle continued for about two centuries, weakened all three powers and created conditions that later facilitated incursions from the north-western Turkic forces.

Other Important Rajput Houses and Principalities

• The Tomars of Delhi: Feudatories of the Pratiharas; traditionally credited with founding the city of Delhi in 736 A.D. Mahipala Tomar is recorded to have captured Thaneshwar, Hansi and Nagarkot in 1043 A.D. Tomars later became feudatories of the Chauhans when Chauhans captured Delhi in the mid-12th century.
• The Chauhans of Ajmer and Delhi: Formerly Pratihara feudatories, the Chauhans asserted independence by the 11th-12th centuries and captured Ujjain and Delhi; they later shifted their centre to Delhi. Prithviraj Chauhan is the most famous ruler of this dynasty.
• Rathors of Kanauj (1090-1194 A.D.): The Rathors established dominance in Kanauj during this period. Jaichand is recorded as the last notable ruler; he was defeated at the battle of Chandwar in 1194 A.D. by forces of Muhammad of Ghori.
• The Chandellas of Bundelkhand: Established by the 9th century. Their capital was Mahoba (particularly during the reign of King Yasovarman). Their important fort was Kalinjar. They constructed the famous Kandariya Mahadeva Temple at Khajuraho (circa 1050 A.D.) along with numerous other temples. The last Chandella ruler Paramal was defeated by Qutb-ud-din Aibak in 1203 A.D.
• The Guhilas (Sisodiyas) of Mewar: The Guhila/Sisodiya line in Mewar had Chittor as its historic capital. The line traces to figures such as Bapa Rawat as an early founder. During Rana Ratan Singh's period, Ala-ud-din Khilji invaded and defeated aspects of Mewar (recorded invasion in 1307 A.D. in some accounts). Later Sisodiya rulers such as Rana Sangha and Maharana Pratap are noted for resisting Mughal expansion.
• The Paramaras of Malwa: Former Pratihara feudatories who asserted independence in the 10th century with Dhara as their capital.
• Raja Bhoja (1018-1069): The most celebrated Paramara ruler of this period; known for patronage of literature and learning. He is credited with constructing a large lake near Bhopal and establishing institutions for Sanskrit studies at Dhara.

Nature of Rajput Society and Polity

• Warrior ethos: Rajputs are widely described in medieval sources as warriors with strong traditions of chivalry, honour and martial conduct.
• Social obligations: Rajput codes emphasised protection of women and the weak (as idealised in chronicle literature).
• Religion: Rajputs were predominantly followers of Hinduism, though they also patronised Buddhism and Jainism in various regions. The period also saw the rise and spread of the Bhakti movement.
• Government and landholding: Rajput polity tended to be feudal in character. Territories were often divided into numerous jagirs held by jagirdars or subordinate chiefs, which could make central coordination difficult.

Administration and Military Organisation

• Feudatory structure: Many Rajput rulers held authority through a network of subordinate chiefs and feudatories who controlled jagirs and local fortresses.
• Fortifications: Forts such as Chittor, Kalinjar and others served as military and administrative centres. The Pratiharas are particularly noted for serving as a bulwark against incursions from the north-west.
• Military challenges: Internal rivalry among Rajput houses and the absence of a single dominant and sustained military power across north India weakened collective resistance to foreign invasions in the late 10th-12th centuries.

Literature, Learning and Scholars

• Kalhana's Rajatarangini - literally the "River of Kings"; a historical chronicle of Kashmir composed in verse, an important source for north-western Indian history.
• Jayadeva's Gita Govindam - a lyrical work of devotional poetry celebrating Krishna (often translated as "Song of the Cowherd").
• Somadeva's Kathasaritsagara - the "Ocean of Tales"; a large collection of stories and narratives compiled in Sanskrit.
• Chand Bardai's Prithviraj Raso - a courtly epic associated with the deeds of Prithviraj Chauhan, recounting military exploits and legends (the text has later interpolations and diverse manuscript traditions).
• Bhaskara (Bhaskara II) - author of Siddhanta Shiromani, a major work on mathematics and astronomy.
• Rajasekhara: A court poet associated with the reigns of Mahendrapala and Mahipala; known works include Karpuramanjari, Bala and a Ramayana adaptation.

Art and Architecture

• Temple architecture: The Chandellas built the celebrated temples at Khajuraho (including the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple) in the 10th-11th centuries A.D.
• Regional temples: Examples from this broad period include the Lingaraja Temple at Bhubaneswar, the Sun Temple at Konark, and the Dilwara Temples at Mount Abu.
• Paintings: Mural paintings and miniature painting traditions flourished in different regions under patronage of Rajput courts and contemporaneous dynasties.

End of Rajput Political Dominance

• Fragmentation: The political landscape after the 10th-11th centuries was fragmented with many independent Rajput principalities; lack of a unified authority reduced the capacity to repel sustained foreign invasions.
• Invasions and decisive battles: Repeated incursions from the north-west and subsequent campaigns by leaders such as Mahmud of Ghazni, Muhammad of Ghori and early Turkic commanders (including Qutb-ud-din Aibak) resulted in the defeat or subjugation of several Rajput rulers and houses by the late 12th and early 13th centuries.

Important Terms and Cultural Practices

• Jauhar: Collective self-immolation by women of a fortress or community to avoid capture and dishonour at the hands of invading forces; recorded in several Rajput chronicles and later accounts.
• Gita Govindam: "Song of the Cowherd" - devotional lyrical poetry by Jayadeva.
• Rajatarangini: "River of Kings" - Kalhana's chronological history of Kashmir.
• Kathasaritsagara: "Ocean of Tales" - Somadeva's anthology of stories.

Summary: The Rajput period marks a formative phase in early medieval north India when numerous regional warrior dynasties shaped political, social and cultural life. Their patronage fostered temples, literature and arts while their fragmented political order and feudal structure contributed to vulnerability in the face of sustained foreign invasions from the north-west during the later medieval centuries.