Nationalist Movement Phase 1(1900-1915) - History for UPSC CSE PDF Download

The Early Phase of the Freedom Struggle (1900-1915)

This chapter covers the principal political developments, movements and organisations in India between 1900 and 1915. The period marks the transition from elite constitutional protest to mass politics, the rise of organised communal representation, the growth of revolutionary activity, and the use of cultural, educational and economic tools in the national movement.

• Date and authority: The partition was announced by Lord Curzon and implemented by royal proclamation on 16 October 1905.
• Administrative change: The old province of Bengal was divided to create Eastern Bengal and Assam and a smaller western Bengal.
• Stated reason: The government declared the measure would facilitate better administration and economic development of the eastern region.
• Real motive (nationalist view): The partition was widely seen as a political measure to weaken the rising force of Bengali-led nationalism and to create communal divisions between Hindus and Muslims.
• Immediate reaction: On the day the partition took effect, public protest meetings were organised and a day of mourning was observed across Bengal.
• Symbolic acts of unity: On 16 October 1905, many Hindus and Muslims tied Rakhi to one another as a symbol of solidarity against partition.
• Cultural response: Rabindranath Tagore composed the song "Amar Shonar Bangla" in this period; it later became the national anthem of Bangladesh (1971).
• Long-term outcome: The partition was annulled in 1911, but the episode catalysed organised opposition and gave fresh urgency to the national movement.

The Swadeshi campaign began in Bengal as a response to the Partition and quickly developed both local and national dimensions. It combined economic self-reliance with cultural mobilisation and political protest.

Definitions and goals

• Swadeshi - promotion and use of Indian-made goods as a means of economic resistance to British rule and of fostering national self-reliance (Atmasakti).
• Boycott - refusal to use British goods and institutions as a political weapon to cause economic and moral pressure on the colonial administration.
• Wider aims included social and economic regeneration of villages, promotion of vernacular education, and revival of national industries and technical training.

Leadership and spread

• Lokamanya Tilak spread the movement in the western regions-Poona and Bombay.
• Ajit Singh and Lala Lajpat Rai worked in Punjab and northern India.
• Syed Haidar Raza organised activities in Delhi; the movement had supporters in Rawalpindi, Kangra, Jammu, Multan and Haridwar.
• Chidambaram Pillai carried the message to the Madras Presidency.
• Bipin Chandra Pal conducted an extensive lecture tour, galvanising opinion in many provinces.
• The Indian National Congress endorsed Swadeshi and boycott activities in 1905-06; the Banaras session of 1905 (presided over by G.K. Gokhale) signalled growing national support.
• Leaders who favoured political agitation and direct action-the so-called Extremists-included Tilak, Pal and Lajpat Rai; they wanted to broaden the movement into a mass political struggle beyond economic boycott.

Organisational and constructive work

• Self-reliance (Atmasakti): emphasised as a moral and political requirement to restore national confidence and dignity.
• Village uplift and social reform: campaigns targeted caste oppression, child marriage, dowry, alcohol consumption and other social evils to prepare society for mass politics.
• National education: influenced by Tagore's educational ideas. The Bengal National College was founded with Aurobindo Ghosh as principal.
• National Council of Education (August 1906): established to create an indigenous system of literary, scientific and technical education under national control; vernacular languages were to be major media of instruction.
• Technical training: the Bengal Technical Institute was set up and funds were raised to send students to Japan for advanced technical learning.

Cultural mobilisation and propaganda

• Traditional festivals and public gatherings were used for political mobilisation: the Ganapati and Shivaji festivals, popularised by Tilak, became platforms for Swadeshi propaganda.
• Folk theatre forms such as jatra were used extensively to communicate nationalist ideas to large rural and semi-urban audiences.
• Newspapers and periodicals played a central role in spreading ideas. Important publications included: Sanjeevani (K.K. Mitra), Bengalee (S.N. Banerjee), Amrita Bazar Patrika (Motilal Ghosh), Yugantar (B.B. Upadhyaya), New India (Bipin Chandra Pal), Bande Mataram (Aurobindo Ghosh) and Bharat Mata (Ajit Singh).

All-India Muslim League (1906)

• Founding: Delegates met at Dacca in December 1906 during a Muslim Educational Conference; Nawab Salimullah proposed an organisation to look after Muslim interests.
• Date: The All-India Muslim League was established on 30 December 1906.
• Purpose: To represent Muslim political interests and to present demands to the British government through annual sessions.
• Relations with the British: The League initially enjoyed sympathies from some sections of the colonial administration; its early demands later influenced constitutional changes.

Extremists and Moderates - Surat Session (1907)

• Congress developments: The Congress began to show sharp differences between Moderates (who favoured gradual constitutional reforms) and Extremists (who favoured direct agitation and mass action).
• Naoroji's 1906 address: Dadabhai Naoroji, in his presidential address, affirmed the goal of Swaraj (self-government) as the ultimate aim of Congress politics.
• Surat split (1907): The Surat session saw a serious split between Extremists (led by Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, and Lala Lajpat Rai) and Moderates (led by G.K. Gokhale). Disputes over the choice of the president and the character of Congress resolutions caused the rupture.
• Government reaction: The British moved to suppress extremist and revolutionary activities by introducing repressive legislation and prosecution of leaders.

• Repressive Acts: To curb growing unrest the colonial government enacted measures such as the Prevention of Seditious Meetings Act, the Explosive Substances Act, the Criminal Law Amendment Act, and the Newspapers (Incitement to Offences) Act. These laws restricted public meetings, press freedom and allowed special procedures against political activists.
• Arrests and trials: Prominent activists were arrested and tried. Aurobindo Ghosh was arrested in May 1908 in the Alipore Conspiracy Case though no decisive evidence was proved against him.
• Other measures: Lala Lajpat Rai was deported; Tilak was arrested and in July 1908 was sentenced to six years' imprisonment; Chidambaram Pillai and South Indian leaders also faced prosecution.
• Revolutionary networks: The repression led some activists to adopt revolutionary means-bombs, assassination attempts and secret societies-in an effort to force political change.

The Indian Council Act of 1909, introduced during the tenure of Secretary of State John Morley and Viceroy Lord Minto, made limited constitutional reforms. Its major features were:

• Enlargement of councils: The maximum number of nominated and elected members in the Central Legislative Council was increased from 16 to 60 (excluding ex-officio members).
• Provincial councils: The maximum strength of provincial legislative councils was increased; fixed numbers were laid down for larger provinces (for example, 50 in Bengal, Bombay, Madras, United Provinces, and Eastern Bengal and Assam; 30 in Punjab, Burma and similar provinces).
• Separate electorate: The Act introduced separate electorates for Muslims, establishing communal representation which aimed to ensure Muslim political representation but also had the effect of institutionalising communal separation in politics.
• Official vs non-official members: Official (government-nominated) members continued to have majority influence in councils; in many provinces non-official members were in majority though official influence remained strong.
• Legislative powers: Members were permitted to discuss budgets, propose amendments and ask supplementary questions during proceedings, though certain items remained non-votable.
• Executive councils: The Secretary of State was empowered to increase the number of Indian members in the Executive Councils of Madras and Bombay; two Indians were nominated to the Council of the Secretary of State for Indian Affairs; the Governor-General could nominate one Indian to his Executive Council.

Ghadar Party (1913)

• Founders: The Ghadar Party was formed by Lala Hardayal, Taraknath Das and Sohan Singh Bhakna.
• Name and publication: Its name came from a weekly paper Ghadar, first published on 1 November 1913, which recalled the spirit of the 1857 revolt and called for armed uprising.
• Headquarters: The party was based in San Francisco, drawing largely on the Punjabi immigrant community in North America.
• Objective and strategy: The Ghadarites aimed at a coordinated armed revolt in India, and sought to exploit opportunities such as the First World War to challenge British rule.
• Return to India: Many Ghadar activists planned to return to India during the war years to spark insurrection and to collaborate with revolutionary groups in Bengal and Punjab.

Komagata Maru Incident (1914)

• Event: The Komagata Maru was a ship that carried a group of Sikh and Muslim migrants from the Punjab to Vancouver, Canada.
• Canadian response: The Canadian authorities denied their landing and after months of detention forced the ship to return to India.
• Arrival at Calcutta: The Komagata Maru anchored at Calcutta on 29 September 1914.
• Clash and casualties: The passengers refused to board a Punjab-bound train; a clash with police followed in which 22 people were killed.
• Consequences: The incident weakened faith in imperial justice among Indians and stimulated further revolutionary and anti-imperial sentiment.

1. 1905: Partition of Bengal (16 October) and start of mass protests.
2. 1905-08: Swadeshi and boycott movement gains momentum across provinces.
3. 1906 (August): National Council of Education established.
4. 1906 (December 30): Formation of the All-India Muslim League at Dacca.
5. 1907: Surat session of the Indian National Congress; formal split between Moderates and Extremists.
6. 1908 (May): Aurobindo arrested in the Alipore Conspiracy Case; other leaders arrested or deported.
7. 1909: Indian Council Act (Morley-Minto reforms) introduced.
8. 1913: Ghadar Party organised in North America and began anti-imperial propaganda and plans to return to India.
9. 1914: Komagata Maru incident; First World War begins (affecting Indian politics and revolutionary activity).

• The period broadened the social base of politics: from an elite constitutional movement to mass mobilisation across classes and regions.
• Swadeshi and boycott introduced constructive national work-education, technical training and indigenous industry-which continued to influence later movements.
• The Morley-Minto reforms institutionalised communal representation through separate electorates, creating long-term implications for communal politics.
• Repressive legislation and prosecutions radicalised a section of political activists, contributing to the growth of revolutionary organisations both within India and among the diaspora.
• Press, cultural festivals and vernacular education became durable instruments of political communication and mobilisation.
• Incidents involving Indian migrants abroad (e.g., Komagata Maru) linked the Indian question to imperial racial policies and expanded the global dimension of the nationalist struggle.
• The First World War (1914-18) created both opportunities and pressures for nationalist groups; it affected strategies and alliances (this influence becomes more pronounced after 1915).

Between 1900 and 1915 Indian politics underwent important change. The Partition of Bengal and the Swadeshi movement brought mass politics, cultural mobilisation and constructive nationalism to the forefront. The establishment of the All-India Muslim League and the institutionalisation of communal electorates began a parallel trajectory in communal politics. Repressive measures provoked revolutionary responses and strengthened organisational networks at home and abroad. These developments laid the foundation-both constructive and contentious-on which later phases of the freedom movement were built.