Nationalist Movement Phase 2 (1915-1922) - 2 - History for UPSC CSE PDF

Middle Phase of the Freedom Struggle (1915 - 1930)

The period from 1915 onwards witnessed the consolidation of a mass-based national movement in India under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi. Gandhi's return from South Africa in 1915 introduced instruments of moral persuasion and disciplined non-violence-collectively known as Satyagraha-which transformed elite politics into a popular movement drawing peasants, workers, students, women and urban middle classes into organised campaigns against colonial rule.

Leadership of Mahatma Gandhi

• Return from South Africa: Gandhi returned to India in January 1915 and gradually emerged as the central leader of the national movement.
• Principles: He emphasised non-violence (ahimsa), Satyagraha (truth-force or insistence on truth), simplicity and moral self-discipline as political tools.
• Mass mobilisation: Under Gandhi the Congress sought to transform itself from an elite body into a mass organisation capable of mobilising people across region, class and religion.

Influences on Gandhi

• Leo Tolstoy: Tolstoy's writings on non-violence and Christian ethics influenced Gandhi's moral conception of political struggle.
• John Ruskin: Ruskin's Unto This Last inspired Gandhi's ideas about social economy and the dignity of labour; these ideas fed into his concept of trusteeship and self-sufficient village economy.
• Swami Vivekananda: Gandhi drew spiritual strength and a sense of service and national regeneration from Vivekananda's teachings.
• Political mentors: Moderates and early nationalists such as Gopal Krishna Gokhale and Dadabhai Naoroji influenced his political judgement and public methods.

Strategies of Non-violent Resistance

• Satyagraha and civil disobedience: Non-violent refusal to obey specific unjust laws or orders, designed to create moral pressure on the rulers.
• Mass tactics: Organised hartals (strikes), picketing, boycotts of foreign goods, voluntary resignation of government posts, and symbolic acts such as the Salt March (later) to demonstrate popular resolve.
• Negotiation and compromise: Gandhi combined moral pressure with a readiness to negotiate; his method often followed a cycle of confrontation, negotiation and renewed struggle-the so-called "struggle-truce-struggle" approach.

Gandhi's Early Experiments (1917-1918)

(i) Champaran Satyagraha (1917)

• Gandhi's first major Satyagraha in India took place in Champaran, Bihar in 1917.
• Peasants on indigo plantations were forced to cultivate indigo on a portion of their land and to sell it at prices fixed by European planters; this exploitative arrangement was known locally as the "Tin-Kathia system".
• Peasants invited Gandhi to investigate and help; accompanied by Rajendra Prasad, Mazhar-ul-Haq, J.B. Kripalani, Narhari Parekh and Mahadev Desai, Gandhi used inquiry, non-cooperation and persuasion to secure relief for the peasants.
• The Champaran agitation resulted in the reduction of peasant disabilities and was Gandhi's first notable victory in India, demonstrating the effectiveness of his methods.

(ii) Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918)

• In 1918 Gandhi intervened in a dispute between mill workers and mill owners in Ahmedabad.
• He advised the workers to demand a 35% wage increase and to maintain non-violence during the strike.
• Gandhi undertook a fast to strengthen the workers' resolve; after four days the mill owners conceded and agreed to the wage increase.
• The episode showcased Gandhi's role as mediator and his ability to fuse moral sanction with mass action.

(iii) Kheda Satyagraha (1918)

• In Kheda, Gujarat poor harvests and crop failure left peasants unable to pay the full land revenue demanded by the government.
• Gandhi advised peasants to withhold payment of revenue until a remission was granted; the movement involved organised non-payment and refusal to cooperate with revenue officials.
• The government later agreed that revenue should be collected only from those who could afford to pay, effectively conceding the peasant demand.
• Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel emerged as a key organiser and follower of Gandhi during the Kheda struggle.

The Government of India Act, 1919 (Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms)

The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms were intended to introduce limited self-government and to placate Indian public opinion after the First World War. They represented a cautious devolution of powers while retaining ultimate British control.

• Dyarchy in Provinces: Provincial subjects were divided into Transferred subjects (e.g., education, public health, agriculture, local self-government, industries) to be administered by Indian ministers responsible to the provincial legislative councils, and Reserved subjects (e.g., finance, police, justice, revenue) to be handled by the Governor and his executive council not responsible to the legislature.
• Devolution of powers: Subjects of administration were classified into Central and Provincial spheres; matters of all-India importance (railways, finance, foreign affairs) remained with the Centre.
• Legislature and Executive: Provinces were provided with Legislative Councils; the Governor-General's Executive Council's quota of Indian ministers was increased (three Indians among eight members, allocated departments such as Law, Education, Labour, Health and Industries).
• Communal Representation: Communal electorates were extended to include Sikhs, Christians, Anglo-Indians and others, expanding the separate electorate system.
• Future reforms: A bicameral legislature for the Centre was proposed but not implemented until later legislation (Government of India Act, 1935).

While the Act increased Indian participation in government, it fell short of nationalist demands for self-government and retained key powers in British hands, producing both limited administrative change and growing political discontent.

Rowlatt Act and Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919)

Rowlatt Act (1919)

• A committee under Sir Sydney Rowlatt (set up in 1917) recommended measures to deal with revolutionary activities; the resulting Rowlatt Act was passed in March 1919.
• The Act authorised detention without trial, trial by special tribunals and measures to curb civil liberties-powers that many Indians viewed as draconian and repressive; it was widely called the "Black Act".
• Its passage provoked nationwide agitation; Gandhi launched a Satyagraha on 14 February 1919 calling for peaceful protest against the law.

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (13 April 1919)

• In Amritsar, Punjab, large crowds had assembled at Jallianwala Bagh on the festival of Baisakhi. The arrest of local leaders such as Dr Satya Pal and Dr Saifuddin Kitchlew had heightened tensions.
• General Dyer, who had imposed martial measures, ordered troops to open fire on the unarmed crowd without warning; the firing lasted for several minutes and was indiscriminate.
• Official figures recorded 379 dead and 1,137 wounded; the massacre produced shock, outrage and a nationwide upsurge of anti-British feeling.
• The event marked a turning point: many Indians who had earlier supported moderate constitutional methods now turned towards a more radical critique of colonial rule.

Aftermath and Legacy

• Investigation: The British government appointed the Hunter Commission to inquire into the incidents; the commission's proceedings and the government's response were controversial and intensified Indian resentment.
• Political impact: The massacre united public opinion across communities and became a symbol of colonial brutality; it strengthened calls for complete self-government and contributed to the decline of loyalist support.
• Personal consequences: The massacre remained a galvanising memory; years later Sardar Udham Singh assassinated Michael O'Dwyer (the former Lieutenant-Governor of Punjab) in London as an act of retribution.

Khilafat Movement

The Khilafat Movement arose out of Indian Muslim concern over the post-First World War settlement that threatened the Ottoman Caliphate-the symbolic headship of Muslims worldwide. The movement combined pan-Islamic sentiment with Indian anti-imperial politics and briefly aligned with Gandhi's programme.

• Background: The Treaty of Sèvres (1920) imposed harsh terms on the Ottoman Empire and appeared to dismantle the Caliph's authority; Indian Muslims feared the weakening or abolition of the Caliphate.
• Objectives: To pressure Britain to safeguard the Caliphate and to secure favourable terms for Turkey.
• Leadership: Prominent leaders included the Ali brothers (Mohammad Ali and Shaukat Ali), Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, M.A. Ansari, Saifuddin Kitchlew and others; a Khilafat Committee coordinated activities and observed Khilafat Day on 19 October 1919.
• Unity with Congress: Gandhi and the Congress supported the Khilafat cause as a way to build Hindu-Muslim unity; on 23 November 1919 a joint Hindu-Muslim conference chaired by Gandhi emphasised common action.
• Merger with Non-Cooperation: In 1920 the Khilafat leaders accepted Gandhi's programme of non-cooperation and urged him to lead a joint movement, thereby integrating the Khilafat agitation with the wider national struggle.
• Decline: The movement lost urgency after the Turkish nationalist victory and, finally, the abolition of the Caliphate by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (early 1924). The collapse of the Khilafat goal weakened the specially communal character of the movement.

The Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-22)

Launched in August 1920 under Mahatma Gandhi's leadership, the Non-Cooperation Movement aimed to paralyse British administration by organised, peaceful refusal to cooperate with the government. It was the first campaign that brought millions into active political protest.

Objectives and Programme

• Primary aims: To oppose repressive measures such as the Rowlatt Act and the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, and to demand swaraj (self-rule) through non-violent mass action.
• Gandhi's recommended programme: surrender of titular honours, resignation from government and municipal posts, resignation from services including the police and army, boycott of courts and government schools and colleges, non-payment of certain taxes and promotion of indigenous industries.
• Social aims: Promoted Hindu-Muslim unity, removal of untouchability, use of khadi and encouragement of village industries and indigenous education.

Implementation and Spread

• Congress formally adopted the non-cooperation resolution at its Nagpur Session (December 1920) following a resolution moved by Chitta Ranjan Das (C.R. Das).
• Mass participation: students, lawyers, peasants, urban workers, women and traders participated; many schools, colleges and khadi centres were established as alternative institutions.
• Boycott of foreign cloth and camapigns to spin and weave khadi became symbolic acts; picketing of shops selling foreign goods was widespread.
• During the Prince of Wales's visit (November 1921) streets and shops were empty in many towns, showing the movement's reach and effectiveness.
• Regional actions included strikes, protests and local demands for better conditions in many provinces (Kerala, Assam, Rajasthan, Punjab, etc.).

End and Controversy

• The movement was abruptly withdrawn by Gandhi in February 1922 after the Chauri Chaura incident (Gorakhpur district) in which a violent clash resulted in the death of 22 policemen.
• Gandhi felt the movement had to be non-violent and called off the campaign to prevent further violence; this decision split opinion within the Congress, with leaders such as C.R. Das and some younger activists confused and disappointed.

Outcomes

• Mass politicisation: The movement transformed political consciousness across classes and regions and made the freedom struggle a popular enterprise.
• Hindu-Muslim unity: The alliance with the Khilafat leaders briefly fostered communal cooperation against colonial rule.
• Organisational gains: New political cadres, institutions and methods (boycott, picketing, constructive work like khadi) enriched nationalist strategies for the years to follow.
• Limitations: The sudden suspension exposed organisational weaknesses and disagreements over strategy within the nationalist leadership.

Conclusion

The period 1915-1922 consolidated Gandhi's leadership and introduced non-violent mass politics to the Indian freedom struggle. Early experiments in Champaran, Ahmedabad and Kheda tested Satyagraha in rural and urban settings. The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms and repressive measures like the Rowlatt Act, together with the shock of the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, deepened popular resentment. The Khilafat movement and the Non-Cooperation movement (1920-22) demonstrated the possibility of broad, cross-community mobilisation, while also exposing the limits and tensions of mass action. Together these events set the political tone for the subsequent two decades of the national movement.