Nitin Singhania: Summary of Indian Architecture, Sculpture and Pottery (Part - 2) | Additional Study Material for UPSC PDF Download

PROMINE­NT TEMPLES OUTSIDE INDIA

• Angkor Wat, Cambodia Angkor Wat, Cambodia (i) The world’s largest Hindu temple -Angkor Wat, is situation deep in the jungles of Cambodia.
  (ii) The sea-faring activities of the Chola Empire, Kalinga Empire, etc. brought the religion in these parts and gave rise to many Hindu dynasties - the Champa Civilisation in Vietnam, the Khmer empire in Cambodia and the Majapahit Empire in Java. 
• Prambanan Temple, Java-Indonesia
  (i) The largest Hindu temple in Indonesia, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is dedicated to the ‘Trimurti’ gods of the Hindu pantheon.
  (ii) It was built in 9th century AD by the Sanjaya Kings of the Mataram or Medang Kingdom who were mainly Shiva worshippers.
• Pashupatinath Temple, Kathmandu, Nepal
  (i) The temple is built in the Nepalese Pagoda style on the banks of River Bagmati.
  (ii) It is dedicated to Lord Pashupatinath or Shiva.
  (iii) The temple compound also houses Vasukinath temple and sacred Arya Ghat.
  (iv) It is not clear as to who constructed the temple.
• Preah Vihear Temple, Cambodia
  (i) The temple is dedicated to mountain gods Sikharesvara and Bhadresvara (manifestations of Lord Shiva).
  (ii) The temple symbolically represents the mythological “Mount Meru”, the abode of gods.
  (iii) Although, it was mainly built by the Khmer kings Suryavarman 1 and Suryavarman II in the 11th and 12th centuries.
  (iv) It is included in the UNESCO’s World Heritage list.
  (v) Being located on the border, its ownership and management was a matter of dispute between Thailand and Cambodia with ICJ ruling in favour of Cambodia in 1962.
• Katas Raj Temple, Pakistan 
  (i) The ancient temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva.
  (ii) It is believed that Pandavas visited the temple during their exile.
  (iii) It is mentioned in the travelogues of Hiuen Tsang, the 7th century Chinese traveller. The complex has ‘Satgraha’ (seven temples), a sacred lake and ruins of a Buddhist stupa.
• Aditya Sun Temple of Multan, Pakistan 
  (i) It is one of the oldest and revered temples of South Asia and was mentioned by the 5th century historian Herodotus, Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang and 10th century Persian geographer Al-Istakhri.
  (ii) The temple famous for its riches was raided constantly by invaders, and notably Mahmud of Ghazni.
  (iii) It had an idol of Sun god made up in gold with eyes of beautiful red rubies.
• Munneswaram Temple, Sri Lanka 
  (i) It is believed to be thousand years old with re-construction done in phases by Sri Lankan kings in 16th century following destruction done by Portuguese Jesuits.
  (ii) It is mainly dedicated to Shiva with shrines of Ganesha, Kali and Ayyanayake (Sinhalese Buddhist deity) also present.

Buddhist pilgrimage sites in India

• Mahabodhi temple, Bodh Gaya (Bihar) 
• Mahaviharas at Nalanda, Vikramshila, Jagaddala, Odantapuri, Pushpagiri etc.
• Lalitagiri, Vajragiri and Ratnagiri in Odisha 
• Sarnath in Uttar Pradesh 
• Kushinagar, Uttar Pradesh 
• Sanchi and Bharhut in Madhya Pradesh 
• Nagapattinam in Tamil Nadu 
• Bhaja & Karla caves, Pune 
• Ajanta, Ellora and Pitalkhora caves, Maharashtra 
• Kanheri caves, Pandavleni caves, Maharashtra 
• Ghum monastery, West Bengal 
• Rumtek, Pemayangtse and Enchay Monastery, Sikkim 
• Alchi Monastery, Spituk Monastery, Shey Monastery etc, Ladakh 
• Dhankar Monastery, Nako Monastery (Kinnaur), Kye Monastery, Tabo Monastery(Spiti valley) etc, Himachal Pradesh 
• Tawang Monastery, Bomdila Monastery in Arunachal Pradesh 
• Namdroling Monastery, Bylakuppe, Karnataka 
• Rock-cut elephant and Ashokan edicts at Dhauli, Odisha

Jain pilgrimage sites in India

• Palitana temples, Shatrunjay hills in Kathiawar, Gujarat (considered the holiest site, especially by Svetambara sect)
• Shikarji, Parasnath in Jharkhand.
• Girnar temples, Junagadh in Gujarat 
• Pawapuri, Nalanda in Bihar (Mahavira was cremated here after attaining Moksha) 
• Dilwara temples. Mount Abu in Rajasthan: 5 marvelous temples built of marble with intricate carvings- Vimal Vasahi temple (oldest) built by Vimal Shah (11th century AD).
  Other temples are Luna Vasahi, Pittalhar, Parshvanath, and Mahavir Swami (13th-17th century AD).
• Shravanabelagola in Karnataka: Gomateswara statute is of Lord Bahubali, (son of the first Jain Tirthankar), built by Chamundaraya, a minister in Ganga dynasty empire (10th century AD).
• Shantinath temple complex in Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh 
• Bawangaja, Barwani in Madhya Pradesh 
• Kankali Tila, near Mathura in Uttar Pradesh 
• Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves in Odisha.
• Nasiyan Temple in Ajmer (Soniji Ki Nasiyan), dedicated to Lord Rishabhdev 
• Sittanavasal Caves in Tamil Nadu 
• Mangi-Tungi located near Tahrabad in Maharashtra (considered as a gateway to the state of enlightenment)

Architecture in Medieval India

• Confluence of Persian style with the Indian style, also known as Indo-Islamic architecture or Indo-Saracenic architecture.
  (a) Features: 
  (i) Use of arch and domes, known as arcuade style of architecture gained importance and replaced the traditional Trabeated style of architecture.
  (ii) Use of minars around the mosques and the mausoleums began.
  (iii) Mortar used as a cementing agent in constructions.
  (iv) Avoided the use of human and animal figures- introduced spaciousness, and breadth to architecture- used calligraphy as means of decoration.
  (v) Arabesque method also used for decoration i.e. use of geometrical vegetal ornamentation.
  (vi) Used the principles of geometry - from decorative pattern to imbibing sense of symmetry.
  (vii) Had intricate jaali works -signifies the importance of light in Islamic religion.
  (viii) use of water in the premises, in the form of courtyard pools, fountains and small drains - water used primarily for 3 purposes: religious, cooling the premises and decorative purpose.
  (ix) Introduced the Charbagh style of gardening, where a square block was divided into four adjacent identical gardens.
  (xi) Use of the pietra-dura technique for the inlay of precious stones and gems into the stone walls.
  (xii) Use of foreshortening technique in the buildings, such that the inscriptions appear to be closer than it really is.

Difference between Arcuade Style and Trabeat Style

• Trabeat Style: 
  (i) Entrance: Use of Lintel
  (ii) Use of shikhara on top of the temples- generally conical or curvilinear.
  (iii) Minars are absent.
  (iv) Material: Stone was the primary component.
• Arcuade Style: 
  (i) Entrance: Use of arches and domes.
  (ii) Use of domes on top of mosques - generally hemispherical.
  (iii) Minars are present on four corners of mosques.
  (iv) Material: Brick, lime plaster and mortar.

Architecture during Delhi Sultanate Period

• Delhi Sultanate period- 1206-1526 A.D. 
• Architecture classified into two:
  (a) Imperial Style: 
  Patronised by the rulers of the Delhi- from 1191 to 1557 A.D under various dynasties:
  (i) Slave dynasty (Ubari dynasty):

» 1206 to 1290
» Style of architecture was known as the Mameluke style of architecture
» Most of the constructions were remodellings of the existing Hindu structures

Example: Quwat-ul-Islam mosque in the Qutub Minar premises

(ii) Khilji dynasty (1290 A.D. to 1320 A.D.): 

Established the Seljuk style of architecture, use of red sandstone, prominence of Arcuade style began- mortar used as a cementing agent.
Example: Alai Darwaza by Ala-ud-din Khilji.

(iii) Tughlaq dynasty: 

» Crisis period for architecture- some construction works undertaken- used grey sandstone.
» Focus more on strength of the building and less emphasis on decoration.
» Introduced a style of construction called “batter” - characterised by sloping walls to give more strength to the building.

Example: Cities of Tughlaqabaad, Jahaanpanah, and Ferozabad

(iv) Lodi dynasty: 

» Only tombs were commissioned.
» Introduction of double domes- consisted of a hollow dome inside the top dome- double domes built to give strength to the structure and lower the inner height of the dome.
» No lavish decorations on tombs.

Example: Lodi gardens of Provincial Style

(b) Patronised by local rulers and fiefs 
Indo-Islamic style influenced local architectural styles.
(i) Bengal School: 

» Use of bricks and black marble.
» Mosques continued to use of sloping ‘Bangla roofs’) previously used for temples).

Example: Adina mosque in Pandua

(ii) Malwa School (Pathan School): 

» Cities of Dhar and Mandu became prominent seats of architecture.
» Use of different coloured stones and marbles.
» Large windows (could be as result of European influence)- decorated by a stylised use of arches and pillars- minars not used.
» one of the finest specimens of environmental adaptation- had large windows, lightly arched, artificial reservoirs (baulis). use of locally available materials and use of batter system.

Example: Raani Roopmati pavilion.

(iii) Jaunpur School (Sharqi style): 

» Patronised by the Sharqi rulers- avoided the use of minars.
» Unique feature- use of bold and forceful characters painted on huge screens in the centre and side bays of the prayer hall.

(iv) Bijapur School: 

» Patronage of Adil Shah- Deccan style of architecture.
» Use of 3-arched facade and bulbous dome- use of cornices.
» Unique feature: treatment of its ceilings i.e. without any apparent support- use of Iron clamps and a strong plaster of mortar to give strength- walls decorated by rich carvings.

Example: Gol Gumbaj
» Whispering Gallery in India: Made in such a manner that even whispers can be clearly heard in other parts of the gallery.

Examples include
1. Gol Gumbaj
2. Victoria Memorial
3. Golghar Granary in Bandipore
4. Gol Gumbaj in Bijapur

Mughal Architecture

• Babur 
  (i) Constructed mosques in Panipat and Rohilkhand- 1526 A.D.
• Humayun 
  (i) Laid the foundation of a city named Dinpanah.
  (ii) Persian style became prominent.
• Sher Shah
  (i) Built Qila-e-Quhunah (Mosque of the Old Fort) mosque in Delhi, Sher Shah Suri Masjid in Patna in Afghan style.
  (ii) Re-construction and extension of an old Mauryan route - Renamed it as Sadak-e-Azam (Grand Trunk Road).
• Akbar 
  (i) Introduced the use of ‘Tudor arch’ (four centred arch).
  (ii) Use of red sandstone.
  (iii) Important construction works include:
  (a) Agra Fort: Started by Akbar - most of the structures inside the fort were done during the reign of Shah Jahan- important buildings here include: Diwan-i-aam (Hall of Public audience) and Diwan-i- khas (Hall of Private audience) by Shah Jahan, Sheesh Mahal (Turkish Bath) etc- gardens inside the fort built using the Charbagh style.
  (b) Fatehpur Sikri: Called a “frozen moment in history” as the buildings here represent a unique blend of Hindu and Persian styles.
  • Important buildings inside the city include: Buland Darwaza, Salim Chisti’s tomb, Panch Mahal Jodha Bai’s palace or Mariam-uz-Zamani’s palace, Ibadat Khana, Pachisi Court and Hiran Minar.
  • Akbar built temple of Govind Dev in Vrindavan.
• Jahangir: 
  (i) Focused more on paintings and other forms of art rather than architecture- built Shalimar Bagh in Kashmir, oversaw the construction of Akbar’s tomb in Sikandra- tomb of Itmad-ud-daulah (work undertaken by wife Noor Jahan) 
• Shah Jahan 
  (i) Taj Mahal: Bulit in the memory of Arzuman Bano Begum (Mumtaz Mahal) - use of calligraphy, pietra dura works, foresightening technique, Charbagh style gardens and the use of water in the premisesextremelv fine iaali work- carvings on the marble were low relief
  (ii) Red Fort, Jama Masjid, Shalimar Bagh in Lahore, City of Shahjahanabad and construction of Peacock Throne 
• Aurangzeb: Mughal architecture declined
• Muhammad Azam Shah: 
  (i) Built Biwi-ka-Maqbara (Begum Rabia Durani) in Aurangabad, Zinat Mahal in Delhi. Two other styles of architecture developed in the region of Rajasthan and Punjab in the Mughal period.
  (ii) Sikh Style (in modern-day)Punjab: 
  Heavily influenced by the Mughal style of architecture.
  (a) Features: 

» Use of multiple Chhatris or kiosks on the top of the construction.
» Use of shallow cornices.
» Had fluted domes, were generally covered by brass and copper guilds for decoration and support.
» Arches decorated by the use of numerous foliations.

Example: Harmandir Sahib or Golden temple

(iii) Rajput Style: 
Influenced by the Mughal style
(a) Features:

» Introduction of the concept of hangin balcony.
» Cornices were built in the shape of an arch.

Awadh Architecture

• They mainly revolve around Lucknow and were built by the Nawabs of Awadh during 18th-19th century AD.
• It attempted to preserve mughal traditions along with experimenting with variety of materials and innovative ideas.
• They built religious as well as secular structures.
• These structures were made mainly using mortar (not marble or sandstone). Mortar used was a mixture of brick dust, urad daal (lentil), rice husk, tree gum, etc.
• Prominent structures include -
  1. Bara Imambara, Lucknow - Built in 1784, it comprises Asfi mosque, Bhul-bhulaiya (the labyrinth), and a step well with running water.
  2. Chota Imambara, Lucknow - Built in 1838, it serves as a mausoleum for Nawab Muhammad Ali Shah and his mother.
  3. Rumi Darwaza (Turkish Gate), Lucknow - Built in 1784, it is situated between Bara & Chota Imambara and is believed to be named after Sufi mystic, Jalal ud-Din Muhammad Rumi.

Architecture in Kashmir

• Kashmiri architecture can be broadly divided into: Early medieval Hindu phase and 14th century onwards Muslim rule.
• Temples in Kashmir 
  (i) Reached its peak under the rulers of Karakota dynasty and Utpala dynasty.
  (a) Features: 
• Trefoil arches (Gandhara influence) - Cellular layout and enclosed courtyard- Straight-edged pyramidal roof- Column walls (Greek influence)- Triangular pediments (Greek influence) - Relatively more number of steps.
  (i) Martand Sun Temple: Anantnag, Kashmir 

» 8th century AD - Karkota Dynasty ruler Lalitaditya Muktapida.
» Synthesis of various schools of architecture i.e. Gandhara, Chinese and Gupta.

• Carvings of gods like Vishnu, goddess Ganga and Yamuna, and Sun God.
  (i) Temples at Awantipora: 

» Two temples namely Avantisvamin for Lord Vishnu and Avantisvara dedicated to Lord Shiva.
» Built by king Awantivarman of Utpala dynasty- 9th century AD.
» Influenced by Roman and Gandharan styles.

(ii) Pandrethan Temple (Meru Vardha Swami): 

» Early 10th century-Srinagar.
» Dedicated to Vishnu, but Shiva images also exist.

(iii) Mamleshwara Shiva temple: 
Built in around 400 AD-located in Pahalgam.
(iv) Monuments in Paraspore 
Built by Lalitaditya Muktapida- dedicated to Lord Vishnu and Lord Parihaskesana had few Buddhist monasteries.

• Architectural development under Islamic rule
  (i) Blend of existing Kashmiri style and Islamic style.
  (ii) Made of wood, brick and stone masonry- Multi levelled sloping roofs and tall spires can be seen instead of domes.
  (iii) Example: Jama Masjid, Srinagar, Aali Masjid, Srinagar, Pari Mahal etc.
• Gardens in Kashmir 
  (i) Inspired by the Persian designs- Char Bagh style- includes water streams, fountains and trees.
• Example: Chasm-e-Shahi, Shalimar Bagh. Nishat Bagh. Badamwari Garden in Srinagar, Verinag, Kokernag and Achabal Garden in Anantnag etc.

Temples of Parsi community in India

• Atash Behram
• Eight Atash Behrams (Fire Temples) in India.

Sun Temples in India

• Modhera Sun Temple, Gujarat- 11th century 
• Konark Sun temple, Odisha- by Narasimhadeva I, 13th century; shape of “Rath”(Chariot) 
• Brahmanya Dev Temple, Unao (Madhya Pradesh) 
• Suryanaar Kovil, Kumbakonam (Tamil Nadu)- 11th century; Dravidian style; also ‘Navagraha’ 
• Suryanarayana Swamy temple, Arasavalli (Andhra Pradesh)- by Kalinga king in 7th century. 
• Dakshinaarka Temple, Gaya (Bihar)- by King Prataparuda of Warangal; 13th century AD; has Surya Kund (water reservoir).
• Navalakha Temple, Ghumli (Gujarat)-11th century; Solanki & Maru-Gurjara style.
• Surya Pahar Temple, Goalpara (Assam) 
• Martand Sun temple, Kashmir

Modern Architecture
(a) Portugese Influence 

• Iberian style of architecture
• ‘patio houses’ &‘Baroque style’ 
• Late-16th century in Europe to express the strength of the Church.
• Involved contrasting colours.
• Notable constructions:
  » Se Cathedral in Goa- completed in 1619 AD; Portuguese late-Gothic style; has a large bell called “Golden Bell”.
  » Basilica of Bom Jesus (Holy Jesus), Goa- World Heritage Site; built in Baroque style & completed in 1604 AD; body of revered St Francis Xavier.
• Castella de Aguanda in Mumbai.
• St Paul’s Church, Diu- built in Baroque style; completed in 1610 AD.
• Diu Fort- 1535 AD on coast of Diu island.
• Church of St. Anne, Talaulim in Goa- 1695 AD, in Baroque style.

(b) French influence 

• Urban city planning with them.
• French towns- Pondicherry & Chandernagore (Chandannagar, West Bengal) were built using Cartesian grid plans and scientific architectural designs.
• Concept of anonymous architecture.
• Developed coastal towns of Mahe (Kerala), Karaikal (Tamil Nadu) & Yanam (Andhra Pradesh). 
• Example: Church of Sacred Heart of Jesus in Puducherry, the Sacred Heart Church of Chandannagar.

(c) British Influence: 

• Gothic style of architecture.
• Merged with Indian architecture to result in Indo-Gothic style.
• Post-1911 Neo-Roman architecture emerged.

(d) Indo-Gothic Style 

• Victorian style.
• Blend of Indian, Persian & Gothic architecture.
• Extremely large & elaborate construction with thinner walls and pointed arches and large windows.
• Churches had a crucified ground plan.
• Example: Victoria Memorial in Kolkata, Gateway of India in Mumbai, etc.
• Difference between Iberian and Gothic Architecture:
  

(e) Neo-Roman Style 

• Adopted post-1911.
  The architecture of New Delhi, done by Edwin Lutyens and Herbert Baker- the finest example of this style- “Rome of Hindustan”.
  Features: Constructions were anonymous & without any interesting features. 
• Congested & cramped the space of artistic expression. 
• Circular buildings & overuse of oriental motifs to realise western architectural designs. 
• Upturned dome- Supreme Court and Rashtrapati Bhavan, was introduced.

(f) Post-independence Architecture 

• After 1947, two schools of architecture emerged - Revivalist & Modernist. 
• Both had colonial hangover.
• Punjab government hired Le Corbusier, a French architect to design the city of Chandigarh.

(g) Laurie Baker 

• "Architect of the pool" 
• Responsible for mass housing concept in Kerala. 
• 2006- nominated for Pritzker Prize dubbed as Nobel Prize for architecture. 
• Features: Construction of buildings by using locally available material; filler slab construction; emphasis on ventilation & thermal comfort arrangements.

(h) Charles Correa 

• Urban architecture & spatial planning. 
• Designed- Madhya Pradesh Assembly building, Mahatma Gandhi Memorial Museum in Ahmedabad, LIC building, Connaught Place in Delhi.
• Padma Vibhusan in 2006.